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Secular Jew

A secular Jew is an individual who identifies with Jewish peoplehood through ethnic descent, cultural heritage, historical memory, or national affiliation—such as Zionism—while eschewing or minimizing religious belief in God, adherence to halakha (Jewish law), or ritual observance as defined by traditional Judaism.^[1]^[2] This form of identity prioritizes humanistic, ethical, or communal dimensions derived from Jewish texts and traditions, reinterpreted without supernatural premises, often viewing holidays like Passover or Hanukkah as markers of historical resilience or cultural continuity rather than divine covenant.^[3] Secular Jewish identity gained traction during the 19th-century Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment), which encouraged rationalism and integration into European societies, and was further propelled by secular strands of Zionism that framed Jewish revival as a national rather than theological project.^[3] In Israel, where empirical surveys classify about 45% of Jews as hiloni (secular), this demographic dominates secular education, military service, and technological innovation, yet faces structural frictions with religious institutions controlling marriage, conversion, and Sabbath observance, leading to ongoing debates over state-religion separation.^[4]^[5] In the diaspora, particularly the United States, secular Jews form a plurality, with data showing low synagogue affiliation (around 20-30% regular attendance) but sustained cultural practices like ethnic cuisine or Holocaust remembrance, though high intermarriage rates (over 50% in recent generations) challenge long-term demographic continuity under matrilineal halakhic standards.^[6] Defining characteristics include selective engagement with Jewish symbols for social cohesion—such as community centers or Yiddish revival efforts—without doctrinal commitment, fostering resilience amid assimilation pressures but inviting critiques from religious Jews who question its authenticity and from assimilationists who see it as an outdated ethnic tether.^[7] Controversies persist over whether secular Judaism constitutes a viable "rebirth" of tradition or a diluted remnant prone to erosion, with empirical trends indicating stronger persistence in Israel due to linguistic and civic ties compared to the U.S., where identity increasingly blends into broader American multiculturalism.^[3]^[8]

Definition and Identity

Core Characteristics

A secular Jew identifies as Jewish primarily through ethnic ancestry, shared historical experiences, and cultural traditions, rather than through adherence to religious doctrines or practices such as halakha, the corpus of Jewish law governing daily observance.^[9] This form of identity decouples Jewishness from theism, with many secular Jews expressing agnosticism, atheism, or humanism while affirming membership in the Jewish people via genealogy—often matrilineal descent per traditional criteria—or self-perception of cultural belonging.^[10] Empirical markers include rejection of obligatory rituals like Shabbat observance or kosher dietary laws, contrasted with voluntary engagement in customs reframed secularly, such as viewing the Exodus narrative in Passover seders as a historical liberation story rather than divine intervention.^[11] Cultural practices among secular Jews often center on non-liturgical expressions of heritage, including the use of Yiddish idioms, appreciation of Jewish literature and humor, or communal gatherings tied to holidays like Hanukkah celebrated for resilience and light symbolism over religious miracles. Self-identification in demographic surveys underscores this ethnic-cultural axis; for instance, the 2021 Pew Research Center survey found that 27% of U.S. Jews reported no formal religion yet affirmed Jewish identity through background, culture, or family ties, prioritizing ancestry (55% overall viewed it as essential to Jewishness) over belief or synagogue attendance.^[12] These self-reports, drawn from representative samples, highlight verifiable traits like intergenerational transmission of identity without theological commitment, distinguishing secular Jews from those who integrate religious elements.^[11]

Distinction from Religious Observance

Secular Jews fundamentally reject the divine origin and authority of the Torah, interpreting its texts as products of human history and culture rather than eternal covenants imposed by God, which contrasts sharply with religious Jewish denominations where observance is framed as obedience to divine will.^[13] Orthodox Jews, for instance, regard the Torah and its rabbinic interpretations as directly revealed by God, mandating strict adherence to halakha (Jewish law) in daily life, including Sabbath observance, kosher dietary laws, and ritual purity.^[14] Conservative and Reform Jews, while more flexible in application, still operate within a theological framework that attributes some sacred authority to the Torah, adapting commandments through historical-critical analysis but retaining rituals as expressions of ongoing covenantal relationship.^[15] In place of supernatural mandates, secular Jews may selectively draw on Jewish ethical traditions—such as tikkun olam (repairing the world) or emphasis on justice and community—for moral guidance, treating these as evolved cultural values amenable to rational critique rather than immutable divine decrees.^[16] This approach allows for personal autonomy in practice, where holidays like Passover or Hanukkah might be observed for their historical or familial significance without liturgical belief, differing from religious contexts where such rites reinforce theological commitments and communal boundaries.^[17] Empirically, the absence of religiously enforced norms in secular Jewish identity correlates with elevated rates of intermarriage and assimilation, underscoring a causal vulnerability to identity dilution absent obligatory observance. According to the Pew Research Center's 2020 survey of Jewish Americans, intermarriage stands at approximately 2% among married Orthodox Jews but exceeds 70% among non-Orthodox Jews in recent marriages (2010–2020), with secular-identifying individuals—often encompassed in the non-Orthodox category—exhibiting even higher propensity due to reliance on voluntary ethnic affinity over doctrinal prohibitions.^[18]^[19] This pattern reflects how, without the binding force of perceived divine obligation, cultural transmission weakens across generations, as endogamy and ritual participation lose compulsory weight.^[20]

Ethnic vs. Religious Dimensions

Judaism encompasses both an ethnic dimension, rooted in shared descent and historical kinship, and a religious dimension, defined by adherence to the covenantal obligations of Torah and halakha.^[21] Traditionally, Jewish identity is transmitted matrilineally under halakha, whereby a child born to a Jewish mother is considered Jewish irrespective of paternal lineage or personal belief, emphasizing the religious framework's role in determining membership.^[22] This criterion privileges biological continuity tied to the faith's normative structure over purely cultural or voluntary affiliation, as conversion requires rigorous acceptance of halakhic duties.^[21] Secular interpretations, however, prioritize the ethnic aspect, often equating Jewishness with ancestry or cultural heritage detached from religious observance, which fuels ongoing debates over "who is a Jew." In Israel, the Law of Return (1950, amended 1970) grants automatic citizenship to individuals with at least one Jewish grandparent or their descendants, broadening eligibility beyond strict halakhic standards to include those targeted under Nazi racial laws, thereby facilitating immigration by secular claimants of partial descent.^[23] Yet, personal status matters such as marriage and burial remain under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Orthodox rabbinate, which adheres to matrilineal halakha and Orthodox conversion, creating a bifurcated system where ethnic eligibility for state benefits contrasts with religious exclusion.^[24] Critics argue that reliance on ethnic markers alone fails to sustain robust Jewish identity over generations, as absent the religious covenant's doctrinal and ritual anchors, assimilation erodes distinctiveness, evidenced by declining transmission rates in secular diaspora communities.^[25] This perspective, grounded in observations of secularization's impact, posits that ethnic self-identification lacks the causal mechanisms—such as obligatory practices and communal enforcement—that halakha provides to perpetuate cohesion, rendering secular Jewishness vulnerable to dilution without reintegration of faith-based elements.^[26] Empirical patterns, including intermarriage and identity drift in non-observant populations, underscore that ethnic claims, while evoking historical ties, insufficiently replicate the binding force of religious moorings for long-term viability.^[27]

Historical Origins

Haskalah and Early Modernization (18th-19th Centuries)

The Haskalah, known as the Jewish Enlightenment, originated in Germany during the late 18th century, spanning roughly from the 1770s to the 1880s, as a movement among Jewish intellectuals to reconcile traditional Judaism with the rationalist principles of the broader European Enlightenment.^[28] Pioneered by Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786), a Berlin-based philosopher who argued for the compatibility of Jewish faith with secular reason, the Haskalah emphasized linguistic acculturation—particularly through German—and the study of modern sciences alongside religious texts.^[29] Mendelssohn's 1783 work Jerusalem advocated religious tolerance and individual conscience over coercive orthodoxy, influencing early maskilim (enlightened ones) to critique the insularity of ghetto life and rabbinic authority.^[30] This intellectual shift arose causally from declining economic barriers and exposure to Enlightenment ideas via trade and printing, prompting Jews to prioritize rational inquiry over ritual primacy to gain civil rights.^[31] Adherents, termed maskilim, actively secularized Jewish education by integrating secular curricula—such as mathematics, history, and natural philosophy—into traditional cheder and yeshiva systems, while diminishing the centrality of Talmudic debate.^[31] Figures like Naphtali Herz Wessely (1725–1805) campaigned in his 1782 pamphlet Divrei Shalom ve-Emet for state-supervised schooling that would equip Jews for productive citizenship, fostering vocational skills and manual labor over exclusive scholarly pursuits.^[32] These reforms aimed at cultural integration, condemning Yiddish and traditional dress as barriers to societal participation, which maskilim viewed as essential for ending alienation in the galut (exile).^[33] However, this rationalist focus often de-emphasized halakhic observance, leading to personal dilutions of practice among urban elites and laying groundwork for later schisms, including precursors to Reform Judaism, where ritual adaptation became formalized by the 1810s in Germany.^[34] The Haskalah's integrationist ethos correlated with measurable shifts in Jewish socioeconomic patterns, particularly in Prussia and German states post-1812 emancipation edicts. Jewish enrollment in public schools and universities surged, enabling overrepresentation in professions; for instance, by the mid-19th century, Jews comprised a disproportionate share of students at institutions like the University of Berlin, despite forming under 1% of the Prussian population.^[35] This access facilitated entry into white-collar fields, with Jewish participation in medicine and law rising markedly—reaching notable levels by the 1870s—and coinciding with declining synagogue attendance and ritual adherence in western European Jewish communities, as acculturation prioritized civic utility over orthodoxy.^[36] Yet, these gains exposed tensions, as assimilation eroded communal cohesion without guaranteeing acceptance, highlighting the movement's causal trade-offs between enlightenment and traditional continuity.^[37]

Emancipation and Assimilation in Europe

The emancipation of Jews in France during the Revolution marked a pivotal shift, with the National Assembly granting full citizenship rights on September 27, 1791, thereby removing legal disabilities and enabling Jews to pursue secular professions, education, and public life previously barred to them.^[38] This decree decoupled Jewish civil status from religious observance, allowing individuals to prioritize national loyalty over communal religious laws, which fostered emergent secular identities but imposed assimilation as the condition for equality, including the privatization of distinct practices.^[39] In practice, it eroded traditional structures like autonomous kahal communities, prompting urban migration from rural enclaves akin to shtetls and accelerating the decline of Yiddish as a vernacular in favor of French, though shtetl dissolution intensified later in Eastern Europe with partial emancipations.^[40]^[41] Across 19th-century Europe, similar emancipations—such as in the German states post-1848 and full equality in unified Germany by 1871—expanded opportunities in commerce, academia, and civil service, yet spurred high rates of conversion to Christianity as a pathway to unhindered social mobility, particularly in Berlin where thousands baptized between 1800 and 1840 to evade residual barriers.^[42]^[43] This trend reflected a causal trade-off: political inclusion promoted individualism and secular self-definition, but it fragmented religious cohesion, with conversions often exceeding 10% in urban Jewish populations by World War I, as families sought elite integration amid persistent antisemitic exclusions.^[44] In Eastern Europe, where emancipation lagged until the early 20th century, secular alternatives emerged to counter orthodoxy without full religious abandonment, notably the General Jewish Labour Bund founded in 1897, which championed Yiddish-based socialist culture, workers' rights, and Jewish national autonomy within multi-ethnic states as a bulwark against both assimilation and Zionism.^[45] Bundism preserved ethnic elements through secular education and literature, yet its emphasis on class struggle over ritual observance further decoupled identity from traditional religion, contributing to ritual dilution even as it resisted total cultural erasure.^[46] Overall, emancipation's liberalization enabled secular Jewish flourishing in professions and thought but accelerated the loss of communal insularity, Yiddish vitality, and obligatory practices, trading collective preservation for individual agency in a modernizing continent.^[42]^[40]

Development in the United States and Diaspora

Between 1881 and 1924, over 2.5 million Eastern European Jews immigrated to the United States, primarily from the Russian Empire, Poland, and Austria-Hungary, escaping pogroms, economic hardship, and legal restrictions; these arrivals, concentrated in urban centers like New York City, initially preserved Orthodox religious practices amid communal institutions such as synagogues and mutual aid societies.^[47] ^[48] The second generation, born in America and immersed in public education systems that emphasized civic values over religious dogma, experienced accelerated secularization through urbanization, interethnic interactions, and exposure to Enlightenment-influenced ideals, leading to a marked decline in ritual observance by the 1920s while fostering ethnic solidarity via Yiddish theaters, newspapers, and labor networks.^[49] By 2020, the Pew Research Center survey indicated that 27% of U.S. Jews identified as having no religion yet affirmed Jewish identity through ancestry or culture, with 81% of this subgroup reporting feelings of belonging to the Jewish people and retaining non-religious markers like cuisine (91% importance) and remembrance of the Holocaust (89% importance), underscoring persistent cultural adhesion despite theological disaffiliation.^[11] Secular-oriented Jews disproportionately shaped U.S. labor movements, comprising key leadership in garment unions such as the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union founded in 1900, where socialist ideologies prioritizing class solidarity supplanted traditional religious frameworks, as evidenced by strikes like the 1909 Uprising of 20,000 involving thousands of Jewish women workers.^[50] ^[51] In the civil rights era, secular Jews contributed prominently to organizations like the NAACP (co-founded by figures including Henry Moskowitz in 1909) and Freedom Rides, motivated by humanistic ethics rather than scriptural mandates, with data showing Jews represented about 50% of white Freedom Summer volunteers in 1964 despite comprising under 3% of the U.S. population.^[52] ^[53] In other diaspora communities, such as Canada and Latin America, similar patterns emerged post-World War II, with Holocaust survivors' descendants adapting Jewish identity via secular institutions like community centers, though at lower scales than in the U.S., where institutional maturity facilitated broader cultural retention amid assimilation.^[54]

Demographics and Distribution

Global Prevalence

Precise global estimates for secular Jews—defined as those identifying ethnically or culturally Jewish without religious observance or belief—are challenging due to inconsistent survey methodologies and self-identification criteria across regions. The total core Jewish population stands at approximately 15.7 million as of 2023.^[55] Various analyses indicate that 40-50% of Jews worldwide self-identify as secular, encompassing those who prioritize ethnic heritage over religious practice.^[17] ^[56] This suggests a range of 6-8 million secular Jews, though figures vary by inclusion of "traditional but minimally observant" categories. Regional distributions show pronounced variations. In former Soviet Union states, residual Jewish populations, estimated at 300,000-500,000, display exceptionally high secularity rates, often exceeding 80% among immigrants to Israel from these areas, reflecting entrenched effects of state-enforced atheism.^[57] ^[58] In contrast, Latin American Jewish communities, totaling around 300,000-400,000 across countries like Argentina and Brazil, exhibit relatively lower explicit secular identification, with stronger communal emphasis on religious institutions amid smaller, more insular populations.^[59] Demographic trends point to a relative decline in the secular Jewish share. Fertility rates among secular and non-Orthodox Jews average 1.4-2.0 children per woman globally, below replacement level in diaspora contexts and lagging behind ultra-Orthodox rates of 6-7 children, driving faster growth in religious subgroups.^[12] ^[60] Haredi Jews, at 14% of the global total (about 2.1 million), are expanding rapidly through high birth rates and low out-migration, potentially reducing the secular proportion over time.^[60]

Secular Jews in Israel

Approximately 45% of Israeli Jews self-identify as secular, according to data from Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, with this group comprising a numerical plurality among the Jewish population of about 7.2 million.^[4] This demographic dominates key sectors of Israeli society, including technology, military leadership, and urban culture in cities like Tel Aviv, where secular lifestyles prevail without adherence to halakha. However, in parliamentary politics, secular-led parties such as Yesh Atid and National Unity frequently depend on ultra-Orthodox (haredi) coalitions to form governments, granting religious parties disproportionate influence over policies like military draft exemptions for yeshiva students and subsidies for large haredi families, which strain national budgets and exacerbate fiscal tensions.^[61] Secular Jews have developed alternative institutions to engage Jewish tradition on cultural rather than religious terms, including secular yeshivot like those operated by BINA, which offer text study, social activism, and community programs without ritual observance requirements.^[62] These initiatives address a perceived cultural disconnection, attracting hundreds of young adults annually for programs emphasizing Hebrew literature and ethics. In parallel, demands for civil ceremonies have intensified friction with the state rabbinate, which maintains an Orthodox monopoly on Jewish marriages and conversions under the 1953 Rabbinical Courts Jurisdiction Law; non-Orthodox or civil unions performed domestically remain unrecognized, prompting over 10,000 couples yearly to wed abroad or via online platforms, whose validity Israeli courts have increasingly upheld since a 2022 ruling.^[63] Orthodox-only conversion standards have similarly alienated secular and immigrant communities, with rejection rates for non-Orthodox applicants exceeding 90% in some years, fueling legislative pushes for reform that repeatedly falter due to coalition dependencies.^[64] Secular Zionism provided the ideological and practical foundation for Israel's state-building from independence in 1948 through the post-1967 era, driving military victories, economic modernization, and institution-building amid existential threats, as evidenced by the labor-Zionist frameworks that established kibbutzim, defense industries, and universal conscription.^[65] The 1967 Six-Day War victory reinforced secular confidence in state sovereignty, enabling territorial and infrastructural expansions under leaders like Levi Eshkol. Yet, the haredi population's rapid growth—currently about 13% of Jews but projected to exceed 20% by 2040 due to fertility rates of 6-7 children per woman—challenges these norms through expanding political demands for religious accommodations, such as gender-segregated public spaces and reduced secular education in state-funded schools, potentially shifting governance toward theocratic priorities if demographic trends persist unchecked.^[60]

Secular Jews in North America

In the United States, secular Jews constitute a significant portion of the Jewish population, with the 2020 Pew Research Center survey indicating that 27% of Jewish adults identify as Jews of no religion while retaining a Jewish background, and an additional 35% of Jews by religion affiliate with Reform Judaism, which often incorporates secular-leaning practices.^[11] Intermarriage rates among non-Orthodox Jews, encompassing most secular and Reform individuals, reached 72% for those marrying between 2010 and 2020, facilitating assimilation into broader American society but contributing to reduced religious observance across generations.^[11] This pattern contrasts with Israel's model, where secular Jews benefit from a Jewish-majority nation-state that reinforces ethnic cohesion without equivalent minority-status pressures. Canadian trends mirror U.S. dynamics, as the 2018 Survey of Jews in Canada found that only 33% of respondents considered religion very important in their lives, with 18% identifying as secular Jews who affirm Jewish ethnicity absent religious affiliation, yet exhibit cultural retention through holidays and community ties.^[66] Urban centers dominate, with New York City's metropolitan area hosting approximately 1.5 million Jews—21% of the U.S. total—and Los Angeles County around 519,000, serving as hubs for secular institutions like Jewish Community Centers (JCCs) that prioritize ethnic programming such as arts, fitness, and education over doctrinal faith.^[67]^[68] Prosperity among North American Jews, with median household incomes exceeding national averages, has enabled expressions of "cultural Judaism"—manifest in traditions like deli cuisine and comedic tropes rooted in immigrant experiences—but correlates with identity erosion, as intermarriage and secular upbringing result in only about 50-60% of third-generation descendants maintaining strong Jewish identification.^[11] Longitudinal data show this assimilation accelerates beyond the second generation, driven by socioeconomic integration rather than overt rejection, yielding a diaspora pattern of ethnic dilution distinct from Israel's state-enforced cultural continuity.^[69]

Cultural Practices and Expressions

Adaptation of Traditions and Holidays

Secular Jews commonly repurpose Jewish holidays by focusing on their historical, communal, and familial dimensions, often excluding supernatural or theological elements to align with non-religious worldviews. Hanukkah, for example, is observed as a celebration of Jewish survival and resistance to assimilation, manifested through candle-lighting, gift-giving, and family meals that emphasize cultural continuity rather than divine intervention. In the United States, 67% of Jews of no religion— a group largely overlapping with secular identification—participate in Hanukkah activities at least sometimes, driven primarily by cultural rather than religious motivations.^[11] In Israel, roughly 50% of self-identified secular Jews light Hanukkah candles regularly as a customary tradition reinforcing ethnic identity.^[70] Passover seders among secular Jews underscore narratives of liberation and resilience, with rituals adapted to highlight ethical discussions, historical reenactments, and social gatherings over ritual purity or miracles. Participation rates reflect this cultural repurposing: 58% of U.S. Jews of no religion attend a seder at least occasionally.^[11] Israeli secular Jews exhibit high seder attendance, often in informal settings that prioritize bonding through shared storytelling and meals; variations include beachside or outdoor adaptations during the spring holiday, linking observance to leisure and community ties independent of doctrine.^[71] For lifecycle events, secular Jews transform bar and bat mitzvahs into rites of passage centered on heritage education, personal speeches about Jewish history, and family milestones, bypassing Torah chanting or commandments as religious obligations. In the U.S., 29% of Jews of no religion have experienced such a ceremony, typically framed as a cultural affirmation of identity.^[11] These events foster intergenerational transmission of values like resilience and ethics, with empirical patterns showing sustained practice for social cohesion despite diminished religious belief. In the U.S., some seders incorporate humorous parodies or modern reinterpretations to enhance engagement, empirically associated with stronger family and communal bonds through accessible, non-dogmatic formats.^[72]

Language, Literature, and Arts

Secular Jews have contributed to linguistic preservation and innovation by adapting Jewish languages for non-religious purposes. The YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, established in 1925 in Vilnius (now operating primarily from New York), has played a central role in documenting and promoting Yiddish as a foundation for modern, secular Ashkenazi culture, collecting materials to build a scholarly corpus detached from religious observance.^[73] Yiddish, historically the vernacular of Eastern European Jews, saw revival efforts through YIVO's emphasis on its idioms, proverbs, and literature as markers of cultural continuity, though fluency has sharply declined; by 2021, only about 190,000 U.S. families spoke Yiddish at home, a 41% drop from 1980 levels, representing far less than 5% of the approximately 5.8 million U.S. Jewish adults.^[74]^[75] Parallel to Yiddish initiatives, the revival of Hebrew as a secular everyday language emerged in the late 19th century through figures like Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1858–1922), who advocated its use in schools and homes to foster Jewish national unity independent of liturgical contexts.^[76] Ben-Yehuda, influenced by European nationalism, viewed Hebrew's transformation into a modern tongue as essential for Zionist self-determination, coining thousands of neologisms and insisting on its exclusive spoken use in his family to demonstrate viability.^[77] This effort succeeded in establishing Hebrew as Israel's primary language by the early 20th century, serving secular identity without reliance on religious texts.^[78] In literature, secular Jewish authors have explored themes of identity and assimilation through detached, introspective narratives. Philip Roth (1933–2018), a prominent example, depicted the tensions of American Jewish life in works like Goodbye, Columbus (1959) and American Pastoral (1997), critiquing materialism and cultural dilution while portraying assimilation as an inherent, ambivalent aspect of secular Jewish experience rather than a betrayal of faith.^[79]^[80] Roth's protagonists often navigate neurosis and self-doubt amid suburban integration, sustaining a "soft" ethnic consciousness through irony and personal reflection, unmoored from halakhic observance.^[81] The arts, particularly comedy and film, reflect secular Jewish overrepresentation and humor as vehicles for identity assertion. Woody Allen's oeuvre, spanning films like Annie Hall (1977), employs self-deprecating wit rooted in urban Jewish neuroses to probe secular dilemmas, aligning with a tradition of comedy that marks cultural affiliation without religious practice.^[82] Jews, comprising about 2% of the U.S. population, have historically dominated Hollywood's creative and executive ranks—founding major studios in the early 20th century and maintaining disproportionate influence, with estimates suggesting up to 20% of key roles like studio heads and agents as of the 2020s—enabling portrayals that perpetuate ethnic tropes while fostering broader assimilation.^[83]^[84] These outputs preserve identity markers empirically, yet data indicate waning linguistic anchors, with cultural products increasingly relying on English-infused nostalgia to evoke heritage.^[85] Secular Jewish communities have developed voluntary organizations that emphasize social welfare, cultural activities, and ethical engagement, distinct from the traditional kehillah system's obligatory religious governance and communal taxation. Jewish Community Centers (JCCs), numbering approximately 350 across the United States and Canada as of 2017, serve as multifaceted hubs offering recreational programs, educational classes, childcare, and fitness facilities, thereby sustaining Jewish social ties amid declining synagogue affiliation.^[86] These centers function as inclusive "third spaces" that nurture cultural Jewish identity without mandating religious observance, accommodating secular, cultural, and interfaith participants through events like lectures and holiday celebrations decoupled from liturgy.^[87] Service-oriented groups such as B'nai B'rith, founded in 1843 as the oldest continuously operating Jewish humanitarian organization, further exemplify this shift by focusing on advocacy against antisemitism, support for Israel, and global human rights initiatives, often prioritizing practical aid over theological frameworks.^[88] Unlike the kehillah, which enforced collective religious duties and communal decision-making under rabbinic authority until its erosion in the 19th century, these modern structures rely on individual opt-in participation, enabling flexibility but lacking coercive mechanisms for compliance.^[89] Social norms within these communities often reframe Jewish ethics, such as tikkun olam (world repair), as humanistic imperatives independent of divine command, promoting volunteerism for social justice causes. However, empirical data reveal lower rates of philanthropic and volunteer engagement among secular Jews compared to Orthodox peers; for instance, analyses of American Jewish giving highlight that religiously observant denominations contribute disproportionately to Jewish communal efforts, with Orthodox households showing higher per capita donations and participation in 2022.^[90] This disparity stems from the voluntary nature of secular groups, which, while fostering broader inclusivity—such as welcoming non-halakhically Jewish members—results in attenuated intergenerational transmission of identity, as evidenced by elevated attrition rates in non-Orthodox families where informal ties substitute for structured obligations.^[11]

Intellectual and Political Dimensions

Contributions to Secular Thought and Science

Secular Jews have disproportionately advanced fields of science and rational inquiry, with Jewish individuals—constituting approximately 0.2% of the world's population—accounting for about 22% of all Nobel Prize winners across categories like physics, chemistry, medicine, economics, and literature.^[91]^[92] Notable secular laureates include Albert Einstein, who received the 1921 Physics prize for his explanation of the photoelectric effect and whose agnostic worldview rejected traditional religious dogma, and Niels Bohr (1922 Physics), whose family background was secular Jewish despite Danish roots.^[92] This overrepresentation intensified post-19th century, linked to pre-World War II European Jewish communities' shift toward secular education systems that built on historical literacy mandates, prioritizing analytical skills in urban professions like finance and scholarship while diminishing mystical interpretations.^[93] In philosophy, Baruch Spinoza's excommunication (herem) from Amsterdam's Portuguese-Jewish community on July 27, 1656, for questioning orthodoxy liberated him to formulate a pantheistic rationalism that prioritized geometric deduction and natural causation over revelation, profoundly shaping Enlightenment figures such as Denis Diderot and Immanuel Kant.^[94] Spinoza's Ethics (published posthumously in 1677) argued for a deterministic universe governed by immutable laws, influencing secular ethics and biblical criticism by treating scripture as a historical artifact rather than divine truth.^[95] This break from communal religious constraints exemplifies how secular Jewish thinkers, unburdened by dogmatic adherence, contributed foundational critiques that elevated empirical reason in Western intellectual traditions. Empirical data underscore these patterns, with studies estimating Ashkenazi Jewish average IQ at 107–115—about 0.75 to 1 standard deviation above the global mean of 100—correlating with sustained excellence in abstract reasoning absent theological mysticism.^[96] This edge traces to medieval selection for verbal-mathematical aptitude in literate occupations like moneylending, amplified by cultural norms enforcing universal male literacy for Torah study from antiquity, which secularized into broad intellectual pursuits.^[93] Such factors, independent of religious observance, explain persistent outperformance in rational domains by secular Jews, as seen in fields from psychoanalysis—pioneered by the atheistic Sigmund Freud, whose theories demystified the psyche through observation—to modern genomics.^[96]

Political Alignments and Zionism

Secular Jews in the United States predominantly align with the Democratic Party, with surveys indicating that approximately 73% of secular Jews identify as Democrats or lean Democratic, compared to 59% among more religiously observant Jews.^[97] This left-leaning tendency reflects broader patterns among American Jews, where 71% of those identifying by religion and 82% of Jews of no religion lean Democratic, driven by emphases on social justice, civil liberties, and progressive policies.^[98] However, fringes exist, including anti-Zionist groups like Jewish Voice for Peace (JVP), a secular-led organization advocating opposition to Zionism as a political ideology and support for boycott, divestment, and sanctions against Israel.^[99] Historically, secular Jewish socialism manifested in opposition to Zionism through movements like the General Jewish Labour Bund, founded in 1897, which promoted "doikayt" (hereness) and rejected emigration to Palestine in favor of class struggle and cultural autonomy within diaspora nations.^[100] The Bund viewed Zionism as escapist, prioritizing Yiddish-based proletarian internationalism over nationalist separatism, though it failed to prevent the Holocaust's devastation of its base in Eastern Europe.^[101] In Israel, secular Jews were foundational to Labor Zionism, with leaders like David Ben-Gurion—a committed socialist and atheist—driving state-building through pragmatic nationalism and institutions like the Histadrut labor federation from the 1930s onward.^[102] This secular vision emphasized Jewish self-determination via settlement and defense, culminating in Israel's 1948 establishment under Mapai (Labor's precursor). Yet empirical shifts occurred after the 1977 elections, when Likud's victory under Menachem Begin ended Labor's dominance, as security concerns from wars and terrorism prompted many secular voters—particularly among Mizrahi immigrants—to support right-wing parties prioritizing territorial integrity and military strength over socialist ideals.^[103] Zionist divergences among secular Jews elicit critique: anti-Zionism is often faulted for undermining Jewish collective survival post-Holocaust, effectively endorsing assimilation or diaspora vulnerability without empirical alternatives to statehood amid persistent antisemitism.^[104] Proponents of secular Zionism counter religious variants' theological claims with causal realism, arguing state viability rests on demographic majorities and defensive capabilities rather than messianic fulfillment, as evidenced by Israel's post-1967 territorial gains correlating with reduced invasion threats.

Humanistic and Cultural Movements

Humanistic Judaism emerged as an organized movement in the mid-20th century, formalizing secular approaches to Jewish identity by emphasizing cultural heritage, rational inquiry, and ethical humanism without reliance on supernatural beliefs. Founded by Rabbi Sherwin Wine, who was ordained in the Reform tradition but rejected theistic elements, the movement began in 1963 with the establishment of the Birmingham Temple in Farmington Hills, Michigan, serving eight founding families seeking a non-theistic alternative to traditional synagogue life.^[105]^[106] The Society for Humanistic Judaism, formed in 1969 as its central organization, coordinates congregations that celebrate Jewish history and festivals through humanistic lenses, focusing on human agency and empirical ethics derived from Jewish experience rather than divine commandment.^[107] By the early 21st century, the Society oversaw more than 30 humanistic congregations worldwide, maintaining a small but stable presence amid broader Jewish secularization trends, with practices including lifecycle events like secular weddings and bar/bat mitzvahs centered on personal achievement and communal values.^[108] These groups prioritize rational ethics, drawing from ancient and modern Jewish thought to address contemporary moral issues, such as autonomy in decision-making, while affirming Judaism's secular roots in history and culture over theological dogma.^[109] Growth has remained modest, reflecting a niche appeal among those rejecting supernaturalism yet valuing organized Jewish expression, distinct from informal cultural secularism.^[16] Earlier Yiddishist movements, such as the Arbeter Ring (Workmen's Circle), provided pre-World War II models of secular Jewish organization, blending socialist ideals with Yiddish language preservation and mutual aid for Eastern European immigrants. Established in 1900 as a fraternal order in New York, it promoted cultural education through Yiddish schools and labor activism, offering alternatives to religious orthodoxy without emphasizing post-1960s humanism.^[110] Postwar assimilation and demographic shifts diminished its influence, evolving into a smaller entity focused on progressive cultural engagement rather than mass fraternalism, with reduced Yiddish-centric programming.^[111] These groups influenced later humanistic efforts by demonstrating viable secular communal structures, though their socialist bent contrasts with the rationalist focus of modern movements.^[112]

Criticisms and Debates

Orthodox and Traditionalist Critiques

Orthodox Judaism posits that authentic Jewish identity is inextricably bound to the observance of the 613 mitzvot (commandments) outlined in the Torah and codified in halakha, rendering secularism a fundamental deviation from the covenantal obligation at Sinai. Traditionalist rabbis, drawing on Maimonides (Rambam), classify individuals who systematically abandon mitzvot as akin to apostates (mumarim), particularly those rejecting the entire Torah (mumar le-khol ha-Torah), who forfeit spiritual standing and communal privileges under Jewish law. This halakhic framework views secular Jews not merely as culturally affiliated but as spiritually adrift, risking eternal disconnection from the divine purpose, as Maimonides equates such rejection with denying God's revelation.^[113] Empirical data underscores these critiques, revealing accelerated assimilation in secular Jewish lineages compared to Orthodox communities. The 2020 Pew Research Center survey of Jewish Americans found intermarriage rates at 61% among non-Orthodox Jews (predominantly secular or Reform/Conservative) who married since 2010, versus just 2% among Orthodox Jews, with only 28% of children from intermarriages raised as Jews by religion.^[18] This pattern contributes to a pronounced generational attrition, where non-Orthodox Jewish identification declines sharply beyond the second generation, often exceeding 70-80% loss of active continuity in U.S. contexts, as intermarried families prioritize broader American cultural norms over halakhic fidelity.^[11] Prominent Orthodox thinkers like Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik further contend that secularism inverts Judaism's dialectical tension between human autonomy and divine submission, fostering a "majestic" self-reliance that undermines covenantal ethics and invites moral relativism.^[114] In essays critiquing secular Zionism, Soloveitchik likened non-observant Jews to peripheral figures in the redemptive process—dependent yet spiritually unintegrated—warning that unchecked secular dominance erodes the transcendent foundations essential for Jewish moral coherence.^[115] Traditionalists thus argue that without mitzvot observance, secular expressions of Judaism devolve into ethnic nostalgia, bereft of the causal efficacy derived from halakhic praxis in sustaining communal resilience.

Assimilation and Continuity Concerns

High rates of intermarriage among secular Jews contribute significantly to concerns over cultural and demographic continuity, as these unions often result in offspring with diluted Jewish identification. In the United States, nearly 70% of secular Jews are married to non-Jews, while the figure stands at almost 50% in Europe, according to a 2023 analysis by the Institute for Jewish Policy Research drawing on multiple national surveys.^[116] Among non-Orthodox Jews, who largely overlap with secular identifiers, intermarriage exceeds 70%, per data from the 2020 Pew Research Center survey of U.S. Jews.^[18] Retention of Jewish identity among children from such intermarriages remains low; for instance, only about 21% of U.S. adults over age 49 raised with one Jewish parent identify as Jewish, reflecting the challenges of transmitting identity without reinforced communal or religious structures.^[117] Differential birth rates exacerbate these trends, with secular Jewish fertility falling below replacement levels while religious subgroups sustain higher reproduction. Secular Jews in the Diaspora typically exhibit total fertility rates under 2.0 children per woman, contrasting sharply with 4-7 among Orthodox and ultra-Orthodox communities, as documented in demographic studies by Sergio DellaPergola.^[118] This disparity drives projections of secular Jews becoming a demographic minority within global Jewry; DellaPergola's analyses indicate that ultra-Orthodox growth could lead to them comprising a majority in certain populations by mid-century, amid Diaspora stagnation or decline due to assimilation.^[119] From a causal standpoint, the absence of religious barriers—such as halachic prohibitions on intermarriage—undermines endogamy, mirroring patterns in historical diasporas where secularized or Hellenized Jewish subgroups assimilated into surrounding cultures, leading to their numerical erosion over generations. Empirical evidence from 19th- and 20th-century European Jewish communities shows similar declines among non-observant fractions prior to mass emigration or the Holocaust, underscoring how reliance on voluntary cultural affinity, rather than obligatory practices, fails to counteract broader societal integration pressures.^[116]

Internal Secular Perspectives on Identity

Secular Jews often debate the merits of ethnic exclusivity in sustaining their identity, with some embracing a form of tribalism as a pragmatic response to historical vulnerabilities, while others condemn it as chauvinistic and antithetical to universalist principles. This ambivalence stems from the tension between group solidarity—seen as essential for survival against antisemitism—and a humanistic aversion to parochialism, as articulated in secular Jewish discourse where ethnic belonging is frequently dismissed as outdated tribalism.^[120] Contributors to outlets like Jewish Currents have noted that progressive secularists historically disdained uniquely "Jewish values" when perceived as mystical or superior, thereby ceding ground to religious or nationalist interpretations.^[120] Self-critiques within secular circles highlight the perceived hollowness of identities overly dependent on political liberalism or cultural markers like humor, which critics argue substitute for deeper substantive ties eroded by assimilation. Historian Shlomo Sand exemplifies this rejection, stating in 2014 his desire to "resign and cease considering myself a Jew," portraying Jewish ethnicity as a fictitious, exclusionary construct imposed by law and history rather than organic culture, and linking it to what he viewed as Israel's embedded racism.^[121] Such perspectives frame ethnic exclusivity not as resilience but as a barrier to broader human solidarity, urging secular Jews to prioritize universal ethics over inherited tribal affiliations. Defenses of secular identity counter these critiques by emphasizing post-Holocaust cultural resilience, where ethnic cohesion—without religious dogma—preserves ethical traditions as a resource for global progressivism. Advocates like Lawrence Bush argue that Jewish survival matters because it sustains contributions to social justice and peace, framing tribal elements as functional rather than chauvinistic in an era of persistent threats.^[120] This viewpoint posits that secular Jews' interwoven ethnic, cultural, and political strands provide adaptive strength, allowing identity to endure through shared historical memory rather than ritual observance.^[122]

Modern Developments and Challenges

Post-1948 Israel and Secular Dominance

The establishment of the State of Israel on May 14, 1948, reflected the secular Zionist vision of its founders, led by David Ben-Gurion, who emphasized Jewish national self-determination grounded in historical and cultural ties rather than explicit religious doctrine. The Declaration of Independence invoked the "Rock of Israel" as a compromise phrase to acknowledge Jewish heritage without directly referencing God, avoiding theological disputes amid the push for a democratic framework open to all inhabitants irrespective of religion.^[123]^[124] Ben-Gurion viewed Judaism primarily as a national culture rooted in biblical humanistic principles, extending beyond ritual observance to foster a modern, pioneering society focused on state-building and defense.^[125] Early state institutions embodied this secular orientation, with kibbutzim serving as emblematic atheist or non-religious collectives that drove agricultural and communal development. Founded by Labor Zionist pioneers, these voluntary settlements emphasized collective ownership, equality, and socialist ideals, often rejecting traditional religious practices in favor of self-reliance and ideological education; by the 1950s, kibbutzim housed a significant portion of Israel's population and symbolized the rejection of diaspora religious dependencies in favor of productive labor.^[126] Secular dominance extended to education and media, where state systems prioritized national identity formation through Hebrew language revival, scientific curricula, and unified narratives of Zionist history, marginalizing religious content in public spheres until the 1970s.^[127] From the 1950s to the 1980s, these policies facilitated Israel's rapid economic transformation, with GDP per capita rising from approximately $1,000 in 1950 to over $10,000 by 1980 through industrialization, technological innovation, and universal military conscription that integrated secular Jews into a cohesive defense force.^[128] However, exemptions for Orthodox yeshiva students, initially limited to a small group of about 400 in the early 1950s, created frictions by fostering dependency on higher Orthodox fertility rates—averaging 6-7 children per woman compared to 2-3 for secular Jews—for sustaining population growth amid immigration and security needs.^[129] The 1977 election victory of the Likud party under Menachem Begin marked an initial challenge to Labor's secular hegemony, as traditionalist voters from Middle Eastern Jewish backgrounds and allied religious parties shifted support rightward, signaling emerging political pluralism and a partial religious resurgence while secular frameworks persisted in core institutions.^[103]^[130]

Impact of the 21st Century Events (e.g., October 7, 2023)

The Hamas-led attacks on Israel on October 7, 2023, which killed approximately 1,200 people and resulted in over 250 hostages, triggered a marked surge in Jewish communal involvement, including among secular Jews who had historically shown lower rates of organized participation.^[131] The Jewish Federations of North America (JFNA) 2025 survey documented that 31% of respondents across the Jewish community reported greater engagement in Jewish life post-attacks, with sustained increases in volunteering and philanthropy challenging patterns of secular isolationism.^[132] Federations raised $768.5 million in emergency funds by mid-2025, supporting 472 organizations, while initiatives like JFNA's partnership with Birthright Israel aimed to deploy 10,000 volunteers to Israel in 2025 alone to aid recovery efforts.^[133]^[134] Concurrently, the global escalation of antisemitic incidents following October 7 compelled secular Jews to reassess their ethnic and cultural identities amid tangible threats, as empirical tracking revealed unprecedented levels of hostility. The Anti-Defamation League's (ADL) 2024 Audit of Antisemitic Incidents recorded a record high in the United States, with over half of all cases linked to anti-Israel animus, including harassment, vandalism, and assaults.^[135] A joint JFNA-ADL study in 2025 found that more than 50% of American Jews personally encountered antisemitism in 2024, often irrespective of religious observance, exposing secular individuals—who comprise the majority of U.S. Jews—to identity-based targeting that disrupted assumptions of assimilation's protective effects.^[136] These events intensified ideological fractures within secular Jewish circles, with surveys indicating divergent responses: a subset gravitated toward leftist critiques of Israel, amplifying participation in campus and street protests framing the conflict as colonial oppression, while others fortified defensive postures emphasizing Jewish self-preservation and solidarity with Israel.^[137] Post-October 7 polling by the American Jewish Committee showed near-universal recognition among Jews of rising U.S. antisemitism, yet with polarized views on Israel's actions, where secular progressives exhibited higher rates of ambivalence or opposition compared to their more communally affiliated peers.^[138] This bifurcation, while not universal, underscored causal pressures from external violence and internal debates over Zionism's role in secular identity resilience.^[139]

Future Prospects and Demographic Shifts

Demographic projections indicate that strictly Orthodox (haredi) Jews, with total fertility rates averaging 6.5-7 children per woman, will significantly outpace secular Jews, whose rates hover around 2 children per woman in Israel and 1.4 in the United States.^[140]^[12]^[141] This differential, sustained over decades, drives a shift where haredim are forecasted to comprise 23% of global Jewry by 2040, up from 14% currently, potentially reaching or exceeding 50% by 2100 if trends persist without countervailing assimilation or secular fertility increases.^[142]^[143] In Israel, haredim are projected to form 24% of the total population by 2050 and up to 50% of the Jewish population by 2059, marginalizing secular demographics through sheer numerical dominance in younger cohorts.^[144]^[145] In Israel, recent educational enrollment data underscores this trajectory: for the first time in 2025, religious first-graders outnumbered secular ones by thousands, reflecting haredi and national-religious growth amid stable or declining secular shares.^[146] Claims of a secular renaissance, such as increased cultural attachment to traditions reported in 2024 surveys, appear anecdotal and contradicted by fertility and cohort data showing religiosity rising among youth.^[147] Without a reversal via religious revival or hybrid cultural-religious adaptations, secular Judaism faces dilution into an ethnic minority relic, as low reproduction and intermarriage erode distinct identity over generations.^[60]^[148]

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It was the harshest writ of herem (a ban or ostracism) ever pronounced upon a member of the Portuguese-Jewish community in Amsterdam.
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The Enlightenment and Spinoza's revolutionary rationalism
May 19, 2023 · Born in 1632 in the Dutch Republic, the rationalist philosopher Baruch Spinoza was one of the great fathers of Enlightenment thinking.
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[PDF] Natural History of Ashkenazi Intelligence - MIT
Ashkenazi Jews have the highest average IQ of any ethnic group for which there are reliable data. They score 0.75 to 1.0 standard deviations above the general ...
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The Ideals of the Jewish Labor Bund Have Outlived Nazi Genocide
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David Ben-Gurion - Jewish Virtual Library
At the age of 18 he became a teacher in a Warsaw Jewish school and joined the Socialist-Zionist group “Poalei Zion” (Workers of Zion).
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Begin, Likud Elected to Lead Israeli Government in Landslide | CIE
Bolstered by the support of Jews from North Africa and the Middle East, Likud's victory ends the Labor movement's hegemony over Israeli politics.
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The history of Humanistic Judaism begins with its founder, Rabbi Sherwin Wine. Originally ordained as a Reform rabbi, in 1963 he broke with the Reform movement.
[106]
History - Cong. for Humanistic Judaism
Our congregation was founded as The Birmingham Temple in 1963 by Rabbi Sherwin T. Wine (1928-2007) and eight families seeking to establish a new temple in ...
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Career Highlights - Sherwin Wine
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The Workmen's Circle is now The Workers Circle as Organization ...
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A History of the SoCal Arbeter Ring/Workers (formerly Workmen's ...
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WORKMEN'S CIRCLE (Yid. Arbeter Ring ), U.S. socialist and culturally oriented Jewish fraternal order; founded in New York in 1892 by Jewish immigrant ...<|separator|>
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Teshuvah - Chapter Three - Chabad.org
... mitzvah and an apostate with regard to the entire Torah.106ט ... In Halachah 9 which explains this category, the Rambam speaks about מומרים, apostates.
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Religion and Public Life in the Thought of Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik
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Intermarriage of Jews and non-Jews: the global situation and its ...
Aug 1, 2023 · The global prevalence of intermarriage is 26%, but there's a huge distinction between the situation in Israel (5%) and the Diaspora (42%) ...
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The Future of Israeli and Jewish Demography - INSS
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'Majority of Jews will be Ultra-Orthodox by 2050'
Jul 23, 2007 · Ultra-orthodox British and American Jews are set to outnumber their more secular counterparts by the second half of this century according to research.
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Shlomo Sand: 'I wish to resign and cease considering myself a Jew'
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Holocaust survivorship and religiosity: Meaning and identity
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God is in Israel's Declaration of Independence - opinion
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Ben-Gurion's view of the place of Judaism in Israel
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History & Overview of the Kibbutz Movement - Jewish Virtual Library
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A Brief Economic History of Modern Israel – EH.net
Though the government of Palestine had a single economic policy, the Jewish and Arab economies developed separately, with relatively little connection.Missing: secular post-
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The Earthquake That Could Shatter Netanyahu's Coalition
Mar 15, 2024 · At the time, the ultra-Orthodox constituted about 1 percent of Israel's population, and the exemption applied to just 400 young men in religious ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Jewish Federations' Impact Since 10/7
Together, we have raised 768.5 million dollars, supporting the life-saving work of 472 organizations through a quarter of a billion dollars in allocations ...
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Jewish Federations, Birthright to expand Israel volunteer efforts
Mar 21, 2025 · JFNA and Birthright Israel are launching a major effort to send 10,000 Jewish volunteers to Israel in 2025.
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Audit of Antisemitic Incidents 2024 - ADL
Apr 22, 2025 · Each year, ADL (Anti-Defamation League) tracks incidents of antisemitic harassment, vandalism and assault in the United States.Missing: secular | Show results with:secular
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Federations-ADL Study: Over 50% of American Jews Faced ...
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One Year After October 7, Here's How the Jewish Community Thinks ...
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How American views on Israel and antisemitism have changed ...
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The Future of American Jewry After October 7 - Commentary Magazine
Jun 15, 2025 · Suddenly, many Jews began to think differently about their Jewish identity, their Jewish community, and their connection to Jewish peoplehood ...Missing: secular | Show results with:secular
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Israel's birth rate remains highest in OECD by far, at 2.9 children per ...
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Israel's Exceptional Fertility - מרכז טאוב
Among Jews, age at first birth increased by about 2.8 years between 1994 and 2016, even as non-Haredi Jewish women's TFR rose by about 0.2 children. This means ...
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One in seven of all Jews are strictly Orthodox; by 2040, it will be one ...
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Nearly 1 in 4 Israelis will be ultra-Orthodox by 2050, study says
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Are Israeli Jews Becoming More Secular? - מרכז טאוב
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For the 1st time, religious 1st-graders in Israel outnumber secular ...
Aug 31, 2025 · After peaking at an all-time high of 180,356, the figure dropped to 178,526 in 2024 before rising again to 179,564 in 2025. This follows a ...
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The American Jewish Community Will Look Different in 50 Years
May 4, 2021 · A new study by Yale SOM's Edieal Pinker finds that in the coming decades, those groups will shrink and the number of Jews identifying as Orthodox will grow.