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Tropical desert

A tropical desert is a hot, arid biome characterized by extremely low annual precipitation, typically less than 25 cm (10 inches), and high temperatures driven by subtropical high-pressure systems that suppress rainfall.^[1] These regions, covering approximately 18% of Earth's land surface and located primarily between 15° and 35° latitude north and south of the equator, include major examples such as the Sahara in Africa, the Arabian Desert in the Middle East, the Sonoran Desert in North America, and the deserts of Australia.^[2] The climate features intense daytime heat, with average annual temperatures around 20-25°C and summer highs often exceeding 40°C (104°F), alongside large diurnal temperature swings due to clear skies and low humidity, where nights can drop below 10°C (50°F).^[3] Precipitation is sporadic and irregular, often occurring as brief, intense storms that contribute to flash flooding, while evaporation rates far exceed inputs, maintaining the arid conditions.^[4] Vegetation in tropical deserts is sparse and highly adapted to water scarcity, dominated by xerophytes such as succulents, cacti, and shrubs with thick cuticles, reduced or absent leaves, and extensive root systems to capture rare moisture.^[3] Plants like the saguaro cactus store water in stems and open stomata at night to minimize loss, while ephemeral annuals complete their life cycles rapidly after infrequent rains.^[5] Fauna includes a diverse array of species specialized for survival, such as nocturnal mammals (e.g., fennec foxes and kangaroo rats that conserve water through concentrated urine), reptiles (e.g., desert tortoises and sidewinder rattlesnakes), and birds (e.g., roadrunners), many of which are burrowers or crepuscular to avoid daytime heat.^[2] Insects, arachnids, and small herbivores further populate these ecosystems, with biodiversity hotspots in areas like the Sonoran Desert supporting over 350 bird species and 60 mammals.^[5] Tropical deserts play a critical role in global climate patterns, influencing dust transport and atmospheric circulation,^[6] and face threats from human activities including urbanization, mining, and climate change, which exacerbate aridity and habitat fragmentation.^[5] Notable features include expansive sand dunes, salt flats, and oases that sustain limited human settlements, underscoring the biome's extreme yet resilient nature.^[1]

Distribution

Geographical Extent

Tropical deserts are defined as hot, arid regions primarily situated between approximately 15° and 30° north and south latitudes, where persistent subtropical high-pressure zones dominate, leading to descending air that inhibits precipitation formation.^[7]^[8] These zones align with the descending limbs of the Hadley circulation cells, positioning the deserts in subtropical belts across multiple continents.^[9] The largest tropical desert is the Sahara in North Africa, spanning about 9.2 million square kilometers across countries like Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan, and Tunisia, making it the world's biggest hot desert.^[10] The Arabian Desert in the Middle East covers roughly 2.3 million square kilometers, extending over the Arabian Peninsula including Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, and parts of Iraq and Jordan.^[10] Further examples include the Thar Desert, straddling India and Pakistan at around 200,000 square kilometers; the Kalahari Desert in southern Africa, encompassing about 900,000 square kilometers across Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa; the Great Victoria Desert in Australia, measuring approximately 348,000 square kilometers; the Sonoran Desert in North America, covering 260,000 square kilometers in the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico; and the Namib Desert along southwestern Africa's coast, at 81,000 square kilometers in Namibia and Angola.^[10] Collectively, tropical deserts occupy about 20 percent of Earth's land surface, with many concentrated in continental interiors—such as the Sahara and Kalahari—where distance from moisture sources exacerbates aridity, while others form in coastal zones like the Namib and Sonoran, influenced by cold ocean currents.^[2] The Sahara exemplifies historical expansion trends, having grown by approximately 10 percent since the 1920s due to desertification driven by reduced rainfall and land-use changes.^[11]

Climatic Controls

The primary climatic control governing the formation and persistence of tropical deserts is the subsidence in the descending limb of the Hadley cell, a large-scale atmospheric circulation pattern that drives air downward in the subtropics between approximately 20° and 30° latitude in both hemispheres.^[12] This subsidence creates semi-permanent high-pressure zones, known as subtropical highs, where descending air warms adiabatically, inhibiting vertical motion and cloud development, which in turn suppresses precipitation and maintains arid conditions.^[13] The Hadley cell's structure ensures that moist convection is concentrated near the equator, leaving the subtropics in a state of atmospheric stability that favors evaporation over rainfall.^[14] Complementing the Hadley cell, the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds transport dry air equatorward from these high-pressure regions, further desiccating the subtropics, while the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)—the band of rising air and heavy rainfall—shifts northward and southward with the sun's position, consistently positioning maximum precipitation away from subtropical latitudes.^[15] This ITCZ dynamics reinforces aridity by limiting the incursion of moist air masses into desert belts, as the convergence of trade winds fuels equatorial rains but diverts them from higher subtropical latitudes.^[16] Regional topographic and oceanic influences amplify these atmospheric controls through rain shadow effects and coastal upwelling. Mountain ranges, such as the Aravalli Range, intercept prevailing moist winds, forcing orographic lift and precipitation on their windward slopes while creating drier leeward zones; this mechanism contributes significantly to the aridity of the Thar Desert in northwest India by blocking summer monsoon moisture.^[17] Similarly, cold ocean currents along western continental margins enhance dryness by cooling adjacent air masses, which lowers their capacity to hold moisture and stabilizes the marine layer; the Benguela Current, for example, sustains the hyper-arid conditions of the Namib Desert by promoting coastal fog but minimal rainfall through evaporative cooling.^[18] Secondary factors, including continentality and surface-atmosphere feedbacks, further entrench aridity in tropical desert regions. Continentality—the increasing distance from moisture-laden oceans—reduces the influx of humid air, leading to lower relative humidity and higher evaporation rates in continental interiors, as seen in expansive deserts like the Australian interior. Additionally, the high albedo of bare desert soils reflects a significant portion of incoming solar radiation, reducing net surface heating and limiting local convection, which perpetuates dryness through a positive feedback loop where low soil moisture maintains high reflectivity and suppresses precipitation potential.^[19] Over geological timescales, the long-term stability of tropical deserts stems from the tectonic configuration of subtropical belts, where relatively stable continental positions relative to the Hadley cell's latitudinal bands have preserved these arid environments for millions of years, with minimal disruption from major plate boundary shifts.^[20] This tectonic persistence aligns with the consistent positioning of subtropical highs, allowing desert landscapes to endure through epochs of climatic variation.^[21]

Climate

Temperature Patterns

Tropical deserts exhibit consistently high annual mean temperatures, typically ranging from 20°C to 25°C, driven by their location within the subtropical high-pressure belts where subsiding air inhibits cloud formation and enhances solar heating.^[3] Monthly averages often fall between 21°C and 32°C, reflecting the absence of significant seasonal cooling mechanisms.^[22] Summer air temperatures frequently exceed 50°C, with verified extremes such as 52°C in the Sonoran Desert, Mexico (2024), and 51.3°C in Ouargla, Algeria, within the Sahara (2018).^[23]^[24] These environments maintain hot conditions year-round, though some regions experience minor seasonal variations influenced by monsoonal incursions. For instance, the Thar Desert sees winter lows around 5°C and summer highs over 50°C, with the summer monsoon (June–September) occasionally introducing brief periods of cloud cover that temper daytime extremes.^[25] Such patterns underscore the persistent thermal intensity, where even "cooler" seasons rarely drop below 15°C on average.^[26] A hallmark of tropical desert temperature regimes is the extreme diurnal range, often reaching 35–40°C between day and night, resulting from clear skies, low humidity, and the rapid radiative cooling of dry surfaces after sunset.^[22] Sand and rock substrates absorb intense solar radiation during the day but release heat quickly at night due to minimal atmospheric water vapor to retain it, leading to nocturnal drops as low as 5°C or below.^[27] Ground surface temperatures amplify this variability, frequently surpassing 70–80°C in exposed areas like the Sonoran and Lut Deserts, where satellite observations have recorded peaks of 80.8°C; these extremes impose severe heat stress on surface biota by exceeding physiological tolerances around 70°C.^[28] In contrast to polar deserts, which feature cold year-round conditions with warmest-month means below 10°C, tropical deserts represent hyper-arid hot zones characterized by relentless solar-driven warmth rather than cryogenic extremes.^[2] This distinction highlights how latitude and atmospheric circulation dictate thermal profiles, with tropical variants lacking the persistent ice cover and low-angle insolation that define their polar counterparts.^[29]

Precipitation and Aridity

Tropical deserts are characterized by extremely low annual precipitation, typically less than 250 mm, with many hyper-arid zones receiving under 50 mm per year. For instance, the core of the Atacama Desert, though situated at the subtropical-tropical boundary, records average annual rainfall below 4 mm, underscoring the profound aridity in such environments.^[30] This minimal input stems from the persistent subsidence of dry air masses, resulting in clear skies and negligible cloud cover that inhibit widespread moisture convergence.^[2] The rare precipitation events in tropical deserts arise primarily from sporadic convective thunderstorms triggered by incursions of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) or orographic lift over nearby highlands, often culminating in intense flash floods that briefly transform dry landscapes. These events are highly localized and unpredictable, with rainfall concentrated in short bursts rather than sustained periods, further exacerbating the overall water scarcity. High temperatures in these regions amplify evaporation rates, compounding the deficit by rapidly desiccating any surface moisture.^[31]^[32] Aridity in tropical deserts is quantitatively assessed using indices such as the Thornthwaite aridity index, which highlights a perpetual water deficit by comparing precipitation to potential evapotranspiration (PET), yielding values indicative of severe dryness where PET vastly outpaces inputs. Annual evaporation rates in these areas commonly range from 2,000 to 5,000 mm, far exceeding the scant rainfall and ensuring that soil and atmospheric moisture remain critically low year-round.^[33] Precipitation variability manifests in prolonged decadal droughts, such as the severe episodes in the 1970s and 1980s across the Sahel region bordering the Sahara Desert, which triggered widespread famine affecting millions due to rainfall reductions exceeding 30% compared to prior decades. Similarly, El Niño events can diminish monsoon rainfall in the Sonoran Desert by delaying onset and weakening convective activity, leading to extended dry spells. In coastal tropical deserts like the Namib, fog and dew serve as supplementary moisture sources, with fog providing up to 50-100 mm of equivalent water annually through condensation from marine air, sustaining limited surface hydration where rainfall is absent.^[34]^[35]^[36]

Wind Regimes

In tropical deserts, the dominant wind regimes are characterized by persistent trade winds, which blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. These winds arise from the subtropical high-pressure systems and subsidence zones around 15°–30° latitude, where sinking air warms adiabatically, inhibiting cloud formation and precipitation, thereby reinforcing aridity across vast regions like the Sahara and Australian deserts. Typical speeds range from 10 to 30 km/h, providing a consistent flow that enhances evaporation and desiccation of the surface.^[37] Seasonal variations introduce stronger, more localized winds that intensify dust mobilization. In the Sahara, the Harmattan—a dry, dusty northeasterly trade wind—prevails from November to April, originating over the desert and carrying fine particles southward toward the Gulf of Guinea, often creating hazy conditions that reduce visibility and dry out the air further.^[38] In the Arabian Peninsula, Shamal winds represent a comparable seasonal shift, blowing as hot, gusty northerlies with speeds up to 70 km/h, particularly during winter and spring, exacerbating aridity through rapid moisture removal. These episodic winds briefly disrupt the steadier trade flow but ultimately contribute to the overall desiccating atmosphere. Intense dust storms, including haboobs, punctuate the wind regime as localized phenomena driven by thunderstorm downdrafts or frontal passages, lofting vast quantities of particulate matter into the air. Haboobs in regions like the Arabian Peninsula can deposit hundreds of tons of dust per square kilometer per hour, forming towering walls visible from space and capable of traversing thousands of kilometers.^[39] A notable example is the June 2020 Saharan dust plume, which carried over 7.9 million tons across the Atlantic to the Americas, tracked by satellites and linked to nutrient redistribution.^[40]^[41] These storms play a key role in atmospheric dynamics by eroding surface soils and transporting essential nutrients, such as phosphorus from Saharan sources to distant ecosystems like the Amazon, where annual inputs reach 22,000 tons to support vegetation on nutrient-poor soils.^[6] Visibility during such events often drops to near zero, heightening hazards while facilitating long-range material exchange.^[42] Calm periods are infrequent in tropical deserts due to the prevailing trades, but they occur more readily in topographic basins where sheltering reduces wind speeds to below 3 m/s during nocturnal hours. These lulls promote radiative cooling, fostering strong temperature inversions—up to 18 K over 150 m—that trap cooler air near the surface and stabilize the boundary layer, further suppressing vertical mixing and moisture influx.^[43]

Geomorphology

Dunes and Sand Features

In tropical deserts, extensive ergs, or sand seas, represent major depositional features, covering approximately 20–30% of the total desert area through wind-driven accumulation of loose sediments. These vast sand accumulations, such as the Rub' al-Khali in the Arabian Desert, span about 650,000 km² and exemplify the scale of ergs in hyper-arid tropical environments.^[44]^[45] Dune formation occurs via aeolian processes, where prevailing winds sort and transport sand-sized particles ranging from 0.06 to 2 mm in diameter, depositing them in areas of reduced wind velocity. Quartz dominates these sands due to its high durability, chemical stability, and resistance to abrasion during repeated wind transport.^[46]^[47] The primary dune types in tropical deserts include barchans, which form crescent-shaped mounds under consistent unidirectional winds and feature horns pointing downwind; transverse dunes, which develop as elongated linear ridges oriented perpendicular to the dominant wind direction; and star dunes, characterized by a central pyramidal peak with three or more radiating arms, resulting from multidirectional winds that promote vertical growth over lateral migration.^[46] Dune migration rates depend heavily on wind consistency, with unidirectional regimes enabling faster movement in barchan and transverse forms, while variable winds slow or stabilize star dunes. Barchan dunes, for example, typically advance at rates of 10–30 m per year, as observed in field studies from arid regions like Morocco and Peru. In Australia's Simpson Desert, longitudinal dunes reach heights of up to 30 m, reflecting accumulation under bidirectional wind patterns.^[46]^[48]^[49] Active dunes, characterized by ongoing sand transport and reshaping, contrast with fixed dunes stabilized by vegetation cover or biological soil crusts, which bind particles and reduce mobility, especially in semi-arid margins where occasional precipitation supports sparse plant growth.^[50]

Basins and Depressions

In tropical deserts, basins and depressions are prominent closed topographic lows that function as endorheic systems, where infrequent surface runoff from surrounding highlands is trapped without outflow to the sea, leading to the accumulation of sediments and salts.^[51] These features often occupy structural lows formed amid expansive arid landscapes, such as those in the Sahara and Namib deserts, and play a key role in local sedimentary processes by concentrating evaporites and fine-grained deposits.^[52] A notable example is the Qattara Depression in the northern Sahara of Egypt, an endorheic basin reaching 133 meters below sea level that captures episodic runoff from the Libyan Plateau, resulting in a vast sedimentary fill dominated by evaporites and alluvial silts.^[53] Similarly, the Danakil Depression in the Afar region of Ethiopia, at approximately 125 meters below sea level, exemplifies a tectonically active endorheic basin influenced by volcanic activity, where basaltic eruptions and hydrothermal processes contribute to its saline sedimentary environment.^[54] Playas, or salt pans, represent the terminal features of these basins, forming ephemeral flats from the evaporation of ancient or seasonal lakes, with surfaces crusted by halite and other evaporite minerals. The Etosha Pan in Namibia, covering about 4,800 square kilometers within the Kalahari region, is a classic playa characterized by a thick halite crust that develops as water from rare floods evaporates, leaving behind layered salt deposits up to several meters deep.^[55] These pans trap fine sediments and salts washed in during infrequent precipitation events, creating a dynamic interface between dryland deflation and brief depositional episodes.^[52] The formation of such basins and depressions in tropical deserts typically results from tectonic subsidence along fault lines or deflation by persistent winds that excavate softer sediments, with the lows subsequently filling with alluvium transported by rare flash floods from adjacent uplands.^[52] In regions like the Sahara, tectonic rifting contributes to subsidence, while aeolian deflation amplifies the relief, allowing basins to deepen over geological time scales.^[56] Seasonally, these features exhibit stark transformations: during prolonged dry periods, their surfaces crack into polygonal patterns under intense evaporation, forming durable salt crusts that resist erosion, but rare rains—often from convective storms—turn them into muddy expanses, temporarily supporting algal blooms and invertebrate life before rapid desiccation resumes.^[57] This cyclic wetting and drying influences short-term ecological pulses, with post-rain mudflats fostering ephemeral vegetation and microbial activity until the crust reforms.^[58]

Erosional Landforms

Erosional landforms in tropical deserts are primarily shaped by aeolian processes, where persistent winds laden with abrasive particles sculpt exposed bedrock and unconsolidated materials into distinctive features. These processes dominate in hyper-arid environments with minimal vegetation cover and infrequent rainfall, allowing deflation—the removal of loose particles—and abrasion by saltating sand to prevail. Trade winds and seasonal gusts enhance this erosion, particularly in regions like the subtropics where atmospheric circulation patterns concentrate wind energy.^[59] Yardangs are streamlined, elongate ridges carved from cohesive sediments or bedrock by unidirectional winds, aligning parallel to the dominant wind direction and resembling inverted boat hulls. In the Lut Desert of Iran, yardangs form in the thick Lut Formation, reaching heights of up to 80 meters and extending for kilometers, with their formation attributed to differential erosion where harder layers resist abrasion while softer ones are removed. These features highlight the role of sustained wind velocities exceeding 20 m/s in sculpting vast fields of ridges separated by troughs.^[60]^[61] Ventifacts, also known as dreikanters when displaying three facets, are individual rocks or pebbles polished and faceted by wind-borne sand abrasion, often exhibiting glossy surfaces and sharp edges oriented toward prevailing winds. In high-wind zones of the Namib Desert, such as coastal areas with quartz-rich sands, ventifacts develop on exposed dolerite or granite clasts through repeated impacts that preferentially erode leeward and windward faces, creating keels and flutes. This abrasion mimics sandblasting, with facets forming at angles of 90–120 degrees to the wind direction.^[62]^[63]^[64] Inverted topography arises when erosion-resistant duricrust layers, such as calcrete (calcium carbonate-cemented) or silcrete (silica-cemented) horizons, cap former valley floors and become elevated ridges or mesas as surrounding softer materials erode away. In the Australian outback, these duricrusts, formed during past humid periods, now form prominent mesas like those in the Arcoona Plateau, where inversion transforms paleochannels into linear highlands resistant to further dissection. This process exemplifies how chemical weathering products can control long-term landscape evolution in arid settings.^[65]^[66]^[67] Deflation hollows are shallow depressions excavated by wind removal of fine-grained particles from unconsolidated surfaces, often enlarging to expose underlying bedrock and forming pans or basins up to several meters deep. Adjacent to these, pediments develop as gently inclined bedrock slopes at mountain bases, where lateral abrasion and sheetwash erode material uniformly, creating apron-like surfaces extending kilometers into the desert plain. In tropical deserts like the Namib or Australian interior, deflation hollows can coalesce into larger features, while pediments grade into gravelly veneers, reflecting ongoing wind-driven base-level lowering.^[59]^[63] Aeolian erosion rates in these settings vary by lithology and exposure, with exposed quartzites experiencing denudation of 0.013 to 0.212 mm per thousand years based on cosmogenic nuclide dating across the Namib Desert and escarpment. These rates underscore the slow but persistent nature of wind erosion over geological timescales, contributing to the stark relief of tropical desert landscapes.^[68]

Ecology

Adaptations to Aridity

Organisms in tropical deserts have evolved a suite of physiological, morphological, and behavioral adaptations to cope with extreme aridity and heat, enabling survival in environments where water availability is minimal and temperatures can exceed 40°C during the day. These strategies primarily focus on minimizing water loss, maximizing water retention, and optimizing energy use under conditions of chronic drought. Broadly, adaptations can be categorized as behavioral, which involve activity patterns to avoid stressors, and morphological or physiological, which alter physical structures or metabolic processes to enhance tolerance.^[69] Plants in tropical deserts employ specialized photosynthetic pathways and root systems to conserve water. Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) allows these plants to open stomata at night for CO₂ uptake, storing it as malic acid and fixing it during the day with closed stomata, thereby reducing transpiration by up to 90% compared to C₃ plants.^[70] Morphological features such as reduced or absent leaves and thick, waxy cuticles further limit evaporative water loss, while deep taproots access subsurface aquifers; for instance, mesquite trees (Prosopis spp.) can extend roots to depths of 50 meters or more to reach groundwater in arid soils.^[71] Animals exhibit behavioral adaptations like nocturnal or crepuscular activity to evade daytime heat, foraging and moving when temperatures drop below 30°C, which conserves water by reducing metabolic heat production and sweating.^[72] Physiological strategies include estivation, a dormant state during dry periods; desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) burrow into soil, reducing metabolic rates and sealing themselves in to survive hot, dry summers without food or water for months.^[73] For energy and indirect water procurement, camels store fat in their humps, which, when metabolized, yields metabolic water—approximately 1.1 grams per gram of fat—sustaining them for weeks without drinking.^[74] Microbial extremophiles, such as endolithic bacteria in rock interstices, tolerate desiccation through spore formation; Bacillus species produce endospores that resist water loss for years by dehydrating cytoplasm and stabilizing proteins, reactivating upon rehydration.^[75] These adaptations have evolved over millions of years in response to persistent arid conditions in tropical desert regions, with key innovations like CAM emerging around 20 million years ago during global cooling and drying events that expanded desert biomes.^[76] In stable arid zones, such as the Sahara, selective pressures have refined these traits over 5–10 million years, favoring lineages with enhanced drought tolerance.^[77]

Flora

Tropical desert flora is characterized by sparse, highly specialized plant communities adapted to extreme aridity, with xerophytes dominating the landscape to conserve water and withstand prolonged droughts. These plants, including succulents and thorn-bearing shrubs, form the backbone of desert ecosystems, often covering less than 10-20% of the ground surface in undisturbed areas.^[78] Succulents such as the saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) in the Sonoran Desert exemplify this dominance, growing up to 15 meters tall and capable of storing thousands of liters of water in their expandable stems during rare rainfall events.^[79] Similarly, acacia thorn trees, such as Acacia tortilis, are prevalent in the Sahara, where their deep roots access groundwater and thorny branches deter herbivores while providing sparse shade.^[80] Plant life strategies in tropical deserts revolve around survival in water-scarce environments, with perennials and annual ephemerals representing key adaptations. Perennial species like date palms (Phoenix dactylifera) thrive in oases, where their extensive root systems tap into subterranean water, forming clustered groves that stabilize local microclimates.^[81] In contrast, annual ephemerals, such as the wildflowers in the Thar Desert (e.g., species of Indigofera and Lasiurus), complete their life cycles rapidly after sporadic rains, germinating, blooming, and setting seed within weeks to persist via dormant seeds during dry periods.^[82] Many of these xerophytes employ Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis, opening stomata at night to reduce transpiration.^[83] Biodiversity in tropical deserts is surprisingly varied despite the harsh conditions, with large systems supporting 500 to 2,000 plant species, though density remains low. Hotspots of endemism occur in isolated regions, such as the Namib Desert, where approximately 16% of Namibia's overall flora—around 800 endemic species out of 4,200 native plants—is unique to the area, including succulent shrubs and geophytes restricted to fog-dependent coastal dunes.^[84] This diversity reflects evolutionary adaptations to microhabitats, with families like Cactaceae and Fabaceae (including acacias) contributing disproportionately to species richness. Vegetation zonation in tropical deserts follows gradients of water availability, creating distinct plant assemblages. Phreatophytes, such as mesquite (Prosopis spp.) and tamarisk, cluster near groundwater sources like washes and aquifers, sending taproots up to 50 meters deep to sustain evergreen foliage.^[85] In contrast, surface-adapted communities include crustose lichens, which form thin, crust-like coverings on soils and rocks, tolerating desiccation through symbiotic algae that fix nitrogen and initiate soil development in barren expanses.^[86] Threats to tropical desert flora are intensified by human activities, particularly overgrazing, which compacts soils, erodes root systems, and reduces vegetation cover to critically low levels—often below 10% in heavily impacted rangelands—leading to desertification and loss of biodiversity.^[87] In regions like the Sahel bordering the Sahara, livestock pressure has diminished perennial grass and shrub cover, favoring invasive species and exacerbating aridity.^[88] Climate change is projected to increase rainfall in some areas, such as the Sahara by up to 75% by 2100, potentially altering vegetation patterns, while extreme events like 2024 floods in UAE deserts boosted vegetation by 40% temporarily as of 2025.^[89]^[90]

Fauna

Tropical deserts host a diverse array of fauna adapted to extreme aridity and heat, with reptiles often dominating due to their physiological efficiency in water conservation and thermoregulation. These ectothermic animals thrive in environments where daytime temperatures exceed 40°C, relying on behavioral adaptations like nocturnal activity to minimize heat stress. Prominent examples include the sidewinder rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) in the Sonoran Desert, which uses specialized heat-sensing pits to detect prey in low-light conditions, enabling precise strikes on warm-blooded targets even at night.^[91] Similarly, the thorny devil (Moloch horridus) in Australian deserts features skin grooves that channel moisture via capillary action to its mouth, allowing it to absorb water from fog, dew, or damp sand during rare precipitation events.^[92] Among mammals, larger herbivores like the oryx antelope (Oryx leucoryx) exhibit remarkable physiological adaptations, including a nasal countercurrent heat exchange system that cools arterial blood to the brain by transferring heat to exhaled air, thus preventing overheating without excessive water loss through panting. Smaller mammals, such as jerboas (family Dipodidae), are bipedal rodents with elongated hind legs that facilitate efficient hopping locomotion across loose sand, conserving energy while evading predators in arid Asian and African deserts.^[93]^[94] Invertebrates like scorpions and ants form critical components of desert food webs, with scorpions conserving water through efficient excretory systems that produce guanine as a nitrogenous waste, minimizing osmotic loss in hyper-arid conditions. Ants, particularly harvester species, enhance colony survival via trophallaxis—the mouth-to-mouth exchange of liquids including water and nutrients—allowing communal resource distribution during foraging in water-scarce landscapes. Birds such as the greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) in the Sonoran Desert obtain hydration primarily from their carnivorous diet, while using a specialized back patch of dark skin as a solar heat exchanger to regulate body temperature efficiently.^[95]^[96] Desert food webs support low overall faunal biomass, typically ranging from 0.1 to 1 kg/m² due to limited primary productivity, yet they exhibit high endemism, with regions like the Kalahari hosting numerous reptile species unique to southern African arid zones, such as specialized geckos and skinks comprising a significant portion of local diversity. Many species are nomadic, tracking ephemeral resources like post-rain vegetation bursts or insect outbreaks; for instance, arid-zone birds in Australian deserts adjust their ranges dramatically—sometimes by over an order of magnitude—based on rainfall-driven resource availability, ensuring survival amid unpredictable conditions.^[97]^[98]

Natural Resources

Evaporite Minerals

Evaporite minerals form in the hyper-arid conditions of tropical deserts, where closed basins act as natural evaporation sites, concentrating dissolved ions from groundwater, surface runoff, and atmospheric inputs into chemical precipitates. These minerals, including halides, sulfates, borates, and nitrates, accumulate in layered sequences as brines reach saturation, often in endorheic depressions that prevent outflow to the sea. In tropical settings like the Kalahari and coastal Atacama, high evaporation rates driven by intense solar radiation and low humidity facilitate the buildup of thick crusts and beds.^[99] The primary formation process involves cyclic wetting and drying: infrequent seasonal rains or floods introduce dilute solutions rich in ions such as sodium, calcium, sulfate, chloride, and boron, which then evaporate under the relentless heat, progressively concentrating the brine until minerals precipitate in a solubility-controlled sequence—typically carbonates first, followed by gypsum, halite, and more soluble compounds like borates or nitrates. This repetitive cycle, occurring over geological timescales, builds extensive deposits while microbial activity and wind deflation further refine surface crusts. Global economic reserves of these evaporites surpass 1 billion tons, underscoring their value for industrial chemicals, fertilizers, and construction materials.^[100]^[101] Borax (sodium borate, Na₂B₄O₇·10H₂O) deposits arise from the evaporation of boron-enriched alkaline lake waters in arid closed basins, where volcanic or hydrothermal inputs supply the boron. Prominent examples occur in evaporated playa lakes, such as those in Death Valley (subtropical but illustrative of the process), with analogous borate accumulations forming through similar episodic flooding and desiccation in tropical desert pans like the Kalahari's ephemeral lakes.^[99]^[102] Sodium nitrate (NaNO₃), known as Chile saltpeter, characterizes coastal tropical deserts like the Atacama, where it accumulates in caliche soils up to several meters thick. Formation involves microbial oxidation of ammonia derived from seabird guano deposits, combined with leaching of nitrates from nearby volcanic rocks by rare rains or fog, followed by evaporation that concentrates the soluble nitrate in nitrate-rich brines. These unique deposits, unparalleled in scale elsewhere, resulted from millions of years of hyper-aridity preserving the minerals against dissolution.^[103]^[101] Halite (NaCl) and gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) dominate vast salt pans in interior tropical basins, creating expansive white expanses that reflect the region's extreme aridity. In Etosha Pan, Namibia, the 4,730 km² depression features thick halite crusts interspersed with gypsum, thenardite, and calcite, precipitated from episodic floods in the Cuvelai system that evaporate rapidly. Similarly, the Makgadikgadi Pans in Botswana host immense halite and gypsum accumulations across over 10,000 km², remnants of ancient Lake Makgadikgadi, where seasonal wetting redeposits ions onto the pan floor during the dry season. These pans serve as key depositional sites in tectonic basins, with crust thicknesses reaching tens of centimeters annually.^[104]^[105]^[106] Historical mining of evaporites in tropical deserts peaked in the 19th century with booms in soda ash (primarily trona or natron, Na₂CO₃·10H₂O) extraction from Sahara deposits. Operations at Wadi Natrun in Egypt, a natron-rich evaporite basin, supplied much of Europe's demand for glassmaking and soap production until the rise of synthetic methods like the Leblanc process diminished natural sourcing around the mid-1800s.^[107]

Fossil Fuels and Energy

Tropical deserts harbor significant hydrocarbon resources, primarily oil and natural gas, formed from organic-rich marine sediments deposited during humid periods in the Mesozoic era, approximately 100 to 200 million years ago, and preserved in subsiding tectonic basins.^[108] The Arabian Desert exemplifies this, hosting the world's largest proven oil reserves, with over 700 billion barrels across countries like Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, where fields such as Ghawar in Saudi Arabia alone account for a substantial portion of global production. These reserves drive much of the region's energy economy, with natural gas often co-produced and utilized for power generation and export. Coal deposits are less common in tropical deserts due to their typically younger, non-carboniferous geology, but the Thar Desert in India and Pakistan stands out with estimated lignite reserves of 175 billion tons, representing nearly all of Pakistan's coal resources and offering potential for lignite-based power plants despite environmental concerns over mining in arid conditions.^[109] Extraction of these fossil fuels in desert settings faces logistical hurdles from remote locations, which elevate transportation and infrastructure costs, as well as acute water scarcity that complicates hydraulic fracturing operations in unconventional reservoirs.^[110] Beyond fossil fuels, tropical deserts possess immense renewable energy potential, leveraging their clear skies and stable climates. Solar irradiation routinely surpasses 2,000 kWh/m² per year in regions like the Sahara, supporting utility-scale projects such as Morocco's Noor Ouarzazate complex, a 580 MW concentrated solar power facility that harnesses direct normal irradiance exceeding 2,300 kWh/m² annually to generate clean electricity for millions.^[111] Coastal areas, including the Namib Desert in Namibia, offer complementary wind resources with technical potential estimated at several gigawatts, enabling hybrid solar-wind installations to address intermittency and enhance energy security in off-grid desert communities.^[112]

Metallic Ores and Gemstones

Tropical deserts host significant metallic ore deposits formed primarily through lateritic weathering, a process where prolonged chemical weathering in hot, humid conditions leaches soluble elements from parent rocks, concentrating residual metals like iron, copper, and aluminum in stable cratonic regions.^[113] This supergene enrichment occurs over millions of years on ancient, tectonically stable shields, such as those underlying the Arabian Peninsula and parts of the Sahara, where low erosion rates allow metal accumulation in duricrust layers.^[113] Volcanic activity in rift zones further contributes to ore genesis by intruding mineral-rich magmas, exposing deposits through subsequent arid erosion.^[114] Copper and gold deposits are particularly abundant in the Arabian and Saharan deserts. In the Arabian region, ancient Magan—identified with parts of modern Oman—supplied vast copper ores to Mesopotamian civilizations around 3000 BCE, with prehistoric mining sites in the Hajar Mountains yielding high-grade chalcopyrite deposits exploited for millennia.^[115] In the Sahara, Mauritania's Tasiast and Guelb Moghrein mines produce significant gold alongside copper, with national gold output reaching approximately 22.3 metric tons in 2024 from orogenic and lateritic sources.^[116] Iron ore reserves dominate the Kalahari Desert's sedimentary basins, exemplified by South Africa's Sishen mine, which extracted 25 million metric tons in 2024 from banded iron formations enriched by weathering on the Kaapvaal Craton.^[117] Gemstones in tropical deserts often originate from alluvial processes, where erosion of primary igneous sources disperses durable crystals into gravelly sediments along ancient riverbeds and pans. In the Namib Desert, diamonds from kimberlite pipes weathered out during Miocene uplift, forming Namibia's coastal placer deposits; the country produced approximately 2.2 million carats in 2024, primarily through marine and land-based recovery.^[118] Australian deserts, such as those around Coober Pedy in South Australia, yield over 95% of the world's precious opals from sedimentary-hosted nodules formed by silica precipitation in faulted basins, with mining focused on white and black varieties in arid outback regions.^[119] These alluvial concentrations highlight how desert deflation and episodic flash floods sort and expose gem-bearing gravels.^[120]

Human Interactions

Settlement and Livelihoods

Human settlement in tropical deserts is characterized by extremely low population densities, typically less than 1 person per square kilometer, due to the harsh arid conditions that limit water availability and habitable land. In the Sahara, for instance, approximately 2.5 million people inhabit over 9 million square kilometers, with the vast majority concentrated in about 90 major oases that provide essential groundwater and agricultural potential. The Siwa Oasis in Egypt exemplifies this pattern, supporting around 33,000 residents in an isolated 80-by-20-kilometer area through date palm cultivation and spring-fed settlements.^[121] Traditional livelihoods in these regions often revolve around nomadic pastoralism, where mobile herding adapts to sparse vegetation and seasonal water sources. Bedouin communities across the Arabian and Saharan deserts traditionally herd goats, sheep, and camels, migrating to follow grazing routes while utilizing animal products for food, transport, and trade.^[122] Similarly, the Tuareg people of the Sahara maintain trans-Saharan trade routes, historically traversing up to 2,400 kilometers annually by camel caravan to exchange salt, gold, and goods between North and West Africa, a practice that sustains their semi-nomadic herding economy.^[123] Despite the predominance of nomadic life, several urban centers have emerged in tropical deserts, supported by groundwater extraction and historical trade hubs. Riyadh, in the Arabian Desert, has grown to a metropolitan population of nearly 8 million as of 2025, relying heavily on non-renewable aquifers for its water needs amid rapid modernization.^[124]^[125] Ancient settlements like Timbuktu in the Sahara, established as a permanent trading post in the early 12th century by Tuareg nomads near the Niger River, once thrived as a multicultural center with mud-brick architecture and scholarly institutions before declining due to shifting trade dynamics.^[126] Cultural adaptations to extreme heat and aridity are integral to desert settlements, emphasizing passive cooling and water conservation. In the Thar Desert of India, underground channels known as karez or qanats—gently sloping tunnels that tap aquifers via gravity—transport water over kilometers to villages, enabling irrigation in otherwise barren landscapes.^[127] Adobe architecture, constructed from sun-dried mud bricks mixed with local soil and straw, prevails in both the Sahara and Thar, providing thick walls that absorb daytime heat and release it slowly at night to maintain cooler interiors.^[128]^[129] Demographically, tropical desert populations blend indigenous hunter-gatherer groups with modern migrants drawn to resource opportunities. The San people of the Kalahari Desert, numbering around 90,000 across southern Africa with significant concentrations in Botswana, represent one of the oldest indigenous lineages, traditionally relying on foraging and small-scale herding in semi-arid environments.^[130] In contrast, contemporary migration includes workers attracted to mining activities; for example, in Australia's Great Sandy Desert, overseas-born migrants constitute nearly 25% of the mining workforce, filling labor shortages in remote operations.^[131]

Economic Exploitation

Tropical deserts host significant mining operations, particularly for hydrocarbons and minerals, leveraging their geological formations. Desert basins contribute approximately 27% of global oil production, with major fields in the Middle East such as Saudi Arabia's Ghawar and the UAE's fields driving output through advanced extraction technologies.^[132] In the Sahara, phosphate mining dominates, where Morocco controls over 70% of the world's reserves, primarily in the Khouribga and Boucraa deposits, supporting global fertilizer markets despite production challenges from geopolitical factors.^[133] Agriculture in tropical deserts relies on oasis irrigation systems and canal networks to cultivate high-value crops. Date palms thrive in arid oases, with over 80% of global production—exceeding 8 million tonnes annually—originating from desert regions like those in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Algeria, where traditional and modern irrigation sustains exports.^[134] In India's Thar Desert, the Indira Gandhi Canal has transformed arid lands into productive zones, enabling cotton cultivation across thousands of square kilometers and supporting textile industries through flood and drip irrigation methods.^[135] Tourism capitalizes on the unique landscapes of tropical deserts, fostering adventure and eco-experiences. In Namibia's Namib Desert, safari tours highlight dune ecosystems and wildlife, attracting visitors to sites like Sossusvlei. Similarly, dune bashing and camel treks in the Arabian Desert, particularly in the UAE and Saudi Arabia, form a key segment of the regional industry, which generated over $10 billion in tourism revenue in 2023, bolstered by infrastructure like luxury resorts.^[136] Transportation networks in tropical deserts facilitate resource extraction and trade, overcoming harsh terrain with modern infrastructure. The Trans-Saharan Highway, spanning about 4,500 kilometers from Algiers to Lagos, connects mineral-rich areas in Algeria, Niger, and Nigeria, enhancing intra-African commerce. Railways, though less developed, include proposed lines like the Trans-Saharan Railway for freight. In Asia, China's Belt and Road Initiative has extended highways and rail links through the Gobi Desert fringes in Mongolia, improving connectivity for mineral exports and regional trade.^[137]^[138] Historical trade routes through tropical deserts have evolved into modern economic engines. Extensions of the Silk Road traversed the Thar Desert via oases like Jaisalmer, facilitating silk, spice, and gem exchanges between India and Central Asia for centuries. Today, these pathways underpin substantial GDP contributions from resource sectors; for instance, oil accounts for around 42% of Saudi Arabia's GDP, reflecting the Arabian Peninsula's reliance on desert-based exports.^[139]^[140]

Conservation and Challenges

Desertification poses a severe threat to tropical deserts, with global land degradation affecting approximately 12 million hectares of productive land annually, driven primarily by human activities such as overgrazing and unsustainable agriculture.^[141] In the Sahel region bordering the Sahara Desert, this process is particularly acute, where overgrazing by livestock exacerbates soil erosion and vegetation loss, leading to desert advancement rates of 1–10 km per decade in vulnerable areas.^[142] These dynamics not only reduce arable land but also intensify food insecurity and displacement for local communities reliant on marginal ecosystems. Climate change further compounds these challenges in tropical deserts, with projections indicating a 10–20% decrease in annual rainfall by 2050 in regions like the Sonoran and Arabian Deserts, accompanied by rising temperatures and increased variability.^[143] This aridity shift is expected to heighten the frequency and intensity of dust storms, as drier soils become more susceptible to wind erosion, altering atmospheric patterns and reducing air quality across vast distances.^[144] Consequently, biodiversity faces significant risks, with approximately 20% of desert-adapted species, including endemic plants and reptiles, projected to be at high risk of extinction due to habitat contraction and physiological stress from prolonged droughts.^[145] Conservation initiatives aim to mitigate these threats through protected areas and restoration projects tailored to tropical desert ecosystems. For instance, Saguaro National Park in the Sonoran Desert safeguards over 92,000 acres (37,000 hectares) of unique cactus forests and wildlife habitats, implementing measures like invasive species removal to preserve biodiversity amid encroaching aridity. Similarly, the Great Green Wall initiative across the Sahel seeks to restore 100 million hectares of degraded land by 2030 through tree planting and sustainable land management, aiming to sequester carbon and bolster ecosystem resilience. As of 2025, the initiative has restored about 18 million hectares but faces challenges, with overall progress at around 20%, hampered by funding shortfalls and environmental factors leading to high tree mortality rates.^[146]^[147] These efforts highlight the potential for large-scale reforestation to reverse desertification trends, though progress remains challenged by funding and climatic variability. Mining activities introduce additional environmental hazards, particularly through pollution that contaminates groundwater resources essential for desert oases and aquifers. In the Namib Desert, abandoned copper mines have released heavy metals like copper and lead from tailings into local aquifers, posing risks to water quality and human health in arid settings where alternatives are scarce.^[148] Remediation strategies, including tailings stabilization, are critical to prevent long-term ecological damage. International cooperation under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), established in 1994, coordinates global efforts for arid land restoration, emphasizing sustainable land management and drought mitigation in drylands covering 40% of Earth's land surface.^[149] The convention has facilitated partnerships that have restored millions of hectares worldwide, promoting policies to address root causes like overgrazing while integrating climate adaptation into national strategies for tropical desert regions.

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Sep 13, 2017 · Moisture-harvesting lizards, such as the Australian thorny devil Moloch horridus, have remarkable adaptations for inhabiting arid regions.Abstract · Introduction · Material and methods · Results
[90]
Mechanisms of Thermoregulation and Water Balance in Desert ...
Oct 1, 2006 · Another mechanism that can result in the reduction of water loss via respiratory evaporation is countercurrent heat exchange in the nasal ...<|separator|>
[91]
Hop, skip, run, leap: Unpredictability boosts survival for bipedal ...
Sep 5, 2017 · A new study shows that when bipedal desert rodents called jerboas are being chased, sudden changes in direction, gait and speed help them elude hungry ...
[92]
Hygienic Behavior, Liquid-Foraging, and Trophallaxis in the Leaf ...
Dec 3, 2009 · Workers of leaf-cutting ants were observed engaging in trophallaxis behavior. Specifically, foragers that brought back liquid food engaged more ...
[93]
Greater Roadrunner | Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation
Roadrunners often live in extreme climates and are uniquely adapted to conserve energy. On cool nights, they lower their body temperature and become lethargic.
[94]
Diversity and Endemism of Southern African Gekkonids Linked with ...
Feb 20, 2023 · The Southern African gekkonids are one of the most diverse and highly endemic groups of reptiles within the region, consisting of 86 recognised ...Missing: rate | Show results with:rate
[95]
Geographic range size and extinction risk assessment in nomadic ...
Jan 9, 2015 · Nomads move in complex patterns, often associated with highly fluctuating resources, for example, seasonal fruiting or resource booms ...
[96]
Mineral Resources in Deserts - USGS Publications Warehouse
Oct 29, 1997 · Water evaporating in closed basins precipitates minerals such as gypsum, salts (including sodium nitrate and sodium chloride), and borates. The ...Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[97]
Mineralogy of evaporites: Saline lakes - Geological Digressions
Feb 6, 2020 · Cycle of wetting and drying: Maintenance of evaporite conditions requires intense evaporation over relatively long periods. However ...
[98]
[PDF] Geology and Origin of the Chilean Nitrate Deposits
These saline materials were later leached, redistributed, and enriched in the highly solu ble components, such as nitrate, at deeper soil levels and in soils on ...
[99]
Borax Ore Deposits & Geology - 911Metallurgist
Feb 20, 2017 · In the drier regions of the globe many of the bitter-lake waters contain considerable amounts of borax. This has been concentrated through long- ...
[100]
Solved? Mystery of Atacama Desert's 'White Gold' - Live Science
Feb 6, 2014 · For decades, the simple explanation was that millions of years of evaporation concentrated the nitrates near the desert surface. The minerals ...
[101]
[PDF] Technical note: Mineralogical, chemical, morphological, and optical ...
The samples are from the dry lakebed of Makgadikgadi Pan in central Botswana. The samples contain largely calcite, quartz, the evaporate minerals trona and ...
[102]
Analyses of Namibian Seasonal Salt Pan Crust Dynamics ... - MDPI
Feb 3, 2020 · This sedimentary unit contains a mixture dominated by the evaporite minerals halite, gypsum, and calcite with minor contents of clay and mica ...
[103]
[PDF] Analyses of Recent Sediment Surface Dynamic of a Namibian ...
Feb 18, 2017 · The results show that the major salt pan mineralogical crust types (halite, gypsum, sepiolite/calcite, disturbed dark crust) could be ...
[104]
History of Soda Ash - Şişecam Resources
Soda ash has been used in manufacturing for over 5,000 years. Up until the 19th century, soda ash was extracted from the ashes of plants that grew in sodium ...
[105]
[PDF] Total petroleum systems of the Paleozoic and Jurassic, Greater ...
The central Arabian total petro- leum systems of Paleozoic and Jurassic age contribute most of. Saudi Arabia's 261 billion barrels of proven oil reserves, more.<|control11|><|separator|>
[106]
[PDF] INSIGHTS INTO ENVIRONMENTAL AND DEBT SUSTAINABILITY
they hold around 175 billion tons of coal, making Thar one of the world's largest lignite coal reserves.43 According to a former federal minister for Water ...
[107]
[PDF] Trends in U.S. Oil and Natural Gas Upstream Costs - EIA
Mar 3, 2016 · These plays are located in a remote arid desert area that suffers from water sourcing issues, but gas, oil, and liquids can still be sold ...
[108]
[PDF] Morocco - Noor Solar Power Project - World Bank Document
Jun 6, 2018 · The site has good DNI in excess of 2,300 kWh/m2/year and access to water resources and key infrastructures, such as grid connections and roads.Missing: irradiation | Show results with:irradiation
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[PDF] Renewable Energy Market Analysis: Africa and its Regions - IRENA
IRENA estimates the technical potential of wind power generation at 461 GW4 with Algeria,. Ethiopia, Namibia and Mauritania possessing the greatest potential.
[110]
Ore-Forming Processes Related to Lateritic Weathering
Jan 1, 2005 · This paper reviews the knowledge acquired, mostly during the past two decades, on the processes of metal enrichment during lateritization.
[111]
Key processes and timescales of tropical earth formation
Deep saprolite and well-developed laterite form over 105–107 years through weathering and geochemical differentiation (Balan et al., 2005; Beauvais et al., 2016 ...
[112]
Oman: The Lost Land - Saudi Aramco World
Some 3,000 years ago, miners from somewhere called "Magan" used to dig and process tons of copper ore and export it, via Bahrain, to Sumer.
[113]
Mauritania Gold Production, 1993 – 2024 | CEIC Data
Mauritania Gold Production was reported at 19,300.000 kg in Dec 2022. · This records an increase from the previous figure of 8,100.000 kg for Dec 2021.Missing: Sahara desert
[114]
[PDF] The Mineral Industry of South Africa in 2019
in 2019, production at the sishen Mine remained nearly unchanged at 29.2 Mt. at the Kolomela Mine, output decreased to 13.2 Mt from 13.9 Mt.
[115]
Namibia Diamond Production up 9% in 2023 - Energy Capital & Power
Feb 15, 2024 · Namibia recorded a 9% increase in diamond production in 2023. The country produced 2,327 million carats of rough diamonds last year, ...
[116]
Opal - Geoscience Australia
May 14, 2025 · Boulder opals (opals in concretionary ironstone) are mined in Queensland from numerous localities in a zone extending from the Eulo and ...
[117]
Geology of Corundum and Emerald Gem Deposits: A Review - GIA
Jan 31, 2020 · Most of the mineralized horizons are stone lines, weathering-resistant rock fragments formed by millions of years of erosion (Simonet, 2018).
[118]
Siwa Oasis | Egypt Travel Guide - Rough Guides
Egypt's most unique Oasis, Siwa Oasis The oasis' population is currently about 33,000, mostly Berber, and the main centre is Siwa town. It is dominated by the ...Missing: Sahara | Show results with:Sahara
[119]
Nomads in Jordan and Syria | Cultural Survival
Feb 17, 2010 · The second group was "small" Bedouin who raised sheep and goats primarily. These tribes migrated for shorter distances, as sheep and goats need ...
[120]
Tuareg - Summary - eHRAF World Cultures
The Tuareg came to prominence as stockbreeders and caravanners in the Saharan and Sahelian regions at the beginning of the fourteenth century, when trade routes ...
[121]
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Metro Area Population (1950-2025)
The current metro area population of Riyadh in 2025 is 7,953,000, a 1.69% increase from 2024. The metro area population of Riyadh in 2024 was 7,821,000, ...
[122]
Water resources in Saudi Arabia - npj sustainable agriculture - Nature
Dec 6, 2023 · We provide an overarching view of water resources in Saudi Arabia, in terms of supply, demand, vulnerabilities, and the associated implications on food supply ...
[123]
Digging Into the Myth of Timbuktu - Sapiens.org
Oct 31, 2017 · Cities such as Timbuktu had a uniquely West African flavor—and they developed without the external influences of “more advanced” societies, in ...
[124]
Why we should revitalize indigenous water harvesting systems
Qanats are subsurface tunnels that tap, using gravity, an upslope aquifer into targeted lower land areas or reservoirs (Fig. 2). The tunnel is inclined toward ...
[125]
Sustainable architecture in the Sahara desert - Nuhad Studio
May 24, 2021 · Sustainable architecture in the Sahara uses local materials like soil, sand, straw, and stones. Adobe bricks are made with soil, sand, and ...
[126]
Building in a desert - The Hindu
Aug 16, 2024 · Mud bricks, called adobe bricks, are used in Egypt and they are advocated today by proponents of sustainable architecture in India too, since ...Missing: Sahara | Show results with:Sahara
[127]
Foragers to First Peoples: The Kalahari San Today | Cultural Survival
Apr 28, 2010 · Nearly 80,000 San are found there today, with smaller numbers in Angola, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
[128]
Migrants in mining: Closing the skills shortage gap
Mar 11, 2025 · Migrants are an integral part of Australia's workforce with nearly 25% born overseas and 50% having an overseas-born parent.
[129]
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[130]
Morocco's phosphate diplomacy is reshaping Africa's agricultural ...
Jun 18, 2025 · Morocco controls 70 per cent of the world's phosphate reserves, the key ingredient in fertilisers that Africa desperately needs. With 60 per ...Building Soft Power · Navigating Political... · Environmental And Social...<|separator|>
[131]
THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DATE PRODUCTION AND ...
If the next five most important countries are included, i.e. Algeria, United Arab Emirates, Sudan, Oman and Morocco, then this percentage rises to 90 percent.
[132]
Thar Desert Case Study - Internet Geography
The Indira Gandhi canal has enabled the irrigation of 3500k㎡ of land for the commercial production of wheat, cotton and maize. Tourism in the Thar Desert.
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[134]
Trans-Sahara highway - OPEC Fund for International Development
Approximately 4,600 km in length, the highway is integral for moving goods from the more agriculturally endowed south to food insecure regions in the north.
[135]
The Trans-Saharan Road Corridor - UNCTAD
Oct 25, 2022 · The 4,500 km long North-South backbone (main road) of the corridor connects the ports of Algiers and Lagos through Algeria, Niger, and Nigeria.Missing: railways | Show results with:railways
[136]
Jaisalmer and the Silk Route: An intimate acquaintance in the desert
Mar 28, 2015 · Jaisalmer was a busy pit stop on the Silk Route. Centuries later, the Thar Desert still carries the indelible marks made by merchants and farmers, warriors and ...
[137]
Saudi Arabia - 2022 World Factbook Archive - CIA
Dec 22, 2022 · The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 87% of budget revenues, 42% of GDP, and 90% of export earnings. Saudi Arabia is encouraging the growth ...
[138]
Every Year, 12 Million Hectares of Productive Land Lost, Secretary ...
Jul 27, 2019 · Every year, the world loses 12 million hectares of productive land, with far-reaching consequences, including falling crop yields, massive food loss.Missing: rate | Show results with:rate
[139]
Twentieth-Century Climate Change over Africa - AMS Journals
It is shown that the Sahara Desert has expanded significantly over the twentieth century, by 11%–18% depending on the season, and by 10% when defined using ...Missing: per credible
[140]
Climate change scenarios forecast increased drought exposure for ...
Nov 15, 2024 · On average, a 377% increase in annual drought exposure and a 579% increase in prolonged drought exposure are anticipated for the study area by ...
[141]
As climate changes, sand storms wreak havoc on desert communities
Jul 11, 2023 · The powerful tempests are becoming increasingly common as climate change and land degradation turn once-productive landscapes into desert.
[142]
Desert-adapted species are vulnerable to climate change
Desert-living species could be particularly vulnerable to climate change as they may already live at their physiological limits.
[143]
A green wall to promote peace and restore nature in Africa's Sahel ...
Feb 22, 2023 · By 2030, the Great Green Wall aims to restore 100 million hectares of land, sequester 250 million tonnes of carbon and create 10 million jobs.Missing: target | Show results with:target
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Assessment of hydrochemistry and heavy metal contamination in the ...
Oct 19, 2025 · Assessment of hydrochemistry and heavy metal contamination in the groundwater around an abandoned Copper Mine area in Klein Aub, Namibia.
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The history of UNCCD
UNCCD's history traces back to 1977, with the UNCCD established in 1994 after a 1992 Rio conference and a 1992 General Assembly resolution.