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Amiga custom chips

Amiga custom chips are a family of specialized integrated circuits designed by Commodore International for its Amiga line of personal computers, introduced in 1985, which enabled pioneering multimedia features including hardware-accelerated graphics, multichannel digital audio, and efficient direct memory access (DMA) for input/output operations, setting the Amiga apart from contemporary systems through its ability to handle complex animations, video, and sound in real time.^[1]^[2] The foundational Original Chip Set (OCS) consisted of three primary chips: Agnus, which managed DMA for video, sprites, bitplanes, audio, and disk operations, while supporting up to 512 KB of shared chip RAM and incorporating the Copper coprocessor for synchronized display updates; Denise, responsible for rendering graphics including up to six bitplanes for 64 colors from a 4,096-color palette, dual playfields with collision detection, and eight hardware sprites, with resolutions such as 320×200 (low-res) or 640×200 (high-res) in NTSC; and Paula, which provided four 8-bit digital audio channels with sampling rates up to 28.86 kHz, stereo output, and DMA-based floppy disk control reading 5,632 bytes per track.^[2] These chips integrated seamlessly with the Motorola 68000 CPU, using DMA to offload multimedia tasks and enable multitasking, while supporting advanced modes like hold-and-modify for 4,096 simultaneous colors and interlaced displays for doubled vertical resolution.^[2] The OCS's blitter hardware in Agnus further accelerated bit-block transfers for operations like scrolling and masking, contributing to the Amiga's reputation for fluid animations and video effects rivaling professional equipment.^[2]^[1] Subsequent evolutions expanded these capabilities: the Enhanced Chip Set (ECS), introduced in 1990, upgraded Agnus to the 8372 variant supporting up to 2 MB of chip RAM and rectangular blits up to 32,768 × 32,768 pixels, while enhancing Denise (8373) for SuperHires mode at 1,280 horizontal pixels and a new Productivity mode at 640×480 resolution with four colors from 64, alongside improved genlock features like ChromaKey for video overlay.^[3] ECS also added programmable beam timing and multi-sync support for VGA monitors, maintaining backward compatibility with OCS software.^[3] The Advanced Graphics Architecture (AGA) chipset, released in 1992 for models like the Amiga 1200 and 4000, featured chips such as Alice for advanced DMA and video timing, Lisa for graphics processing, and retained Paula for audio; it dramatically increased the palette to 16.8 million colors (24-bit) with 256 selectable colors on screen, introduced HAM-8 mode for over 256,000 simultaneous colors, and supported higher-resolution sprites up to four times larger than before, along with mode promotion for flicker-free VGA displays via scan-doubling.^[4] These progressions solidified the custom chips' role in enabling the Amiga's enduring legacy in creative computing, from video production to gaming.^[1]^[4]

System Logic and I/O

Gary

The Gary chip, formally known as the Gate Array and designated as CSG 5719, is a custom application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) developed by Commodore International to consolidate system glue logic for Amiga computers. It replaced a large number of discrete 74-series TTL logic components and programmable array logic (PAL) devices used in the original Amiga 1000, thereby reducing manufacturing costs, board space, and potential points of failure.^[5]^[6] Gary performs essential interfacing functions between the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, custom Amiga chips, and peripherals, including floppy disk controller (FDC) operations such as disk motor control and write data/enable signal handling in coordination with the Paula chip. It also manages interrupt generation (e.g., via NDTACK and DMA acknowledge signals) and basic I/O address decoding for video bus timing, real-time clock (RTC) access, and ROM overlay at address $000000. These capabilities support seamless bus arbitration and peripheral communication in early Amiga systems.^[6]^[7] In terms of implementation, Gary is housed in a 48-pin dual in-line package (DIP) operating on a 5V supply with a maximum power dissipation of 500 mW, featuring clock inputs at approximately 3.58 MHz (C1/C3) and 7.16 MHz (NCDAC) in NTSC systems or 4.43 MHz and 8.87 MHz in PAL systems. Its pinout includes dedicated signals for system control, such as NRAME (pin 20) for RAM enable, NRGAE (pin 18) for custom chip register access, and FDC-related outputs like motor on/off and write protect detection. Address decoding occurs via higher-order lines A17–A23, mapping banks like $000000–$1FFFFF for chip RAM and C00000–DFFFFF for I/O expansion, ensuring compatibility with the integrated FDC logic that emulates standard controller behaviors without a discrete WD177x chip. The chip was deployed in Amiga 500, 2000 (revisions 4.x–8.x), and CDTV models starting from their 1987 launch.^[6]^[5] Historically, Gary's introduction marked a shift toward more integrated designs in Commodore's Amiga lineup, simplifying motherboard layouts from the wire-wrapped prototypes and TTL-heavy boards of pre-1987 development phases to enhance production reliability and scalability. This original 24-bit addressing version later evolved into the Fat Gary (CSG 4393/3910) for 32-bit support in tower models like the Amiga 3000.^[5]^[6]

Fat Gary

The Fat Gary chip serves as an upgraded system logic component in later Amiga models, extending the capabilities of the original Gary design to accommodate full 32-bit addressing and advanced bus management. Developed by Commodore around 1989-1990 as part of the transition to workstation-class systems, it debuted in the Amiga 3000 released in June 1990 and was later integrated into the Amiga 4000T tower model.^[8]^[9]^[10] Key enhancements in Fat Gary include support for a complete 32-bit address bus (A31-A0) and data bus (D31-D0), enabling direct connectivity to the Motorola 68030 and 68040 CPUs for high-performance operations. It improves DMA handling through collaboration with the Fat Buster chip, facilitating fast arbitration cycles with 20 ns resolution and secondary bus mastership to minimize transfer overheads. Compatibility with Fast RAM is achieved via dedicated decoding of the address range $08000000-0FFFFFFF, signaled through the /RAMSLOT line, which allows efficient access to high-speed memory while supporting cache-inhibit modes (/CIIN) for uncached data transfers. Additionally, Fat Gary extends interrupt capabilities with lines such as /INT6 and /INT2, alongside encoded CPU interrupts (/IPL2-IPL0), to handle system events more robustly in multitasking environments. Its integration with the Zorro III bus ensures seamless compatibility with 32-bit expansion cards, including asynchronous cycles and fair arbitration for peripherals.^[9]^[8] Technically, Fat Gary is implemented as a custom gate array in an 84-pin package, identified by Commodore part number 390540-02, and operates within the local bus framework to reduce latency for 32-bit CPUs by providing tight coupling for memory and I/O accesses, including burst cycles and cache coherency signals. Revisions include early Level 1 variants with basic features and Level 2 (revision 13H and later) for full Zorro III support, as used in the A4000T. Power consumption aligns with system norms, drawing up to 2 A at 5 VDC in bus contexts, contributing to efficient operation in tower configurations.^[10]^[9]^[8]

Gayle

The Gayle chip, introduced in 1992 as part of Commodore's Advanced Architecture (AA) Amiga lineup, served as a cost-reduced application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) designed specifically for the compact A600 and A1200 models. It replaced the earlier Gary chip while incorporating additional functionality to support internal storage and expansion in low-profile designs, enabling these portable Amigas to accommodate hard disk drives without external controllers. This integration was crucial for the A600's slim form factor and the A1200's consumer-oriented architecture, both of which targeted home users seeking enhanced storage options in a smaller footprint.^[11]^[12] Gayle's primary functions include managing IDE/ATA bus timing for hard drive operations, decoding I/O for the PCMCIA slot, and handling basic system interrupts, all while simplifying aspects of the floppy disk logic from its predecessor Gary. For IDE support, it provides an internal controller capable of 8-bit transfers in the A600 and 16-bit transfers in the A1200, limited to PIO Mode 0 for a theoretical maximum speed of around 3 MB/s, which was adequate for contemporary 2.5-inch laptop drives but insufficient for faster modern storage. The chip integrates seamlessly with the 68000-series CPU by performing address decoding in the range DA0000–DA7FFF for IDE operations, generating DTACK signals for cycle timing, and supporting up to 2 MB of Chip RAM at a 7.16 MHz clock rate.^[11]^[12] Technically, Gayle's IDE interface maps standard ATA command registers—such as the data register, error/status register, sector count, and command register—directly into the Amiga's memory space at DA0000–DA000F for the command block and DA2000–DA200F for the control block, allowing software to issue ATA commands like IDENTIFY DRIVE or READ SECTORS via simple memory writes. PCMCIA support covers memory, attribute, and I/O cycles across $400000–$9FFFFF, with dedicated interrupt lines routed through registers at DA8000–DAB000. However, compatibility challenges arise with certain drives requiring PIO modes beyond Mode 0 or specific timing tolerances, leading to unreliable detection or transfers with some compact flash adapters or older SCSI-IDE bridges; early A600 revisions were particularly noted for intermittent hard drive recognition due to unbuffered signaling. Variants like the 391155-01 (early A600) and 391155-02 (later A600/A1200) address minor revisions in these timings, but overall, Gayle prioritized cost efficiency over high-performance storage.^[12]^[13]^[11]

CIA

The Amiga computer employs two MOS Technology 8520 Complex Interface Adapter (CIA) chips, known as CIA A and CIA B, to handle peripheral timing and control functions essential for input/output operations. These chips provide versatile interfacing for user peripherals and system events, forming a core part of the Amiga's hardware architecture in most models.^[14] CIA A primarily manages the keyboard and mouse through its 8-bit Port A at address BFE001, which supports SPI-like serial I/O via a shift register and includes debounce capabilities for joystick inputs using timer edge detection. CIA B oversees the serial and parallel ports, with Port A at BFD000 dedicated to serial port control—including UART emulation via its serial shift register and Timer A as a baud rate generator—and Port B at BFD100 handling parallel port handshaking and floppy disk control. Each port features programmable direction registers (DDRA and DDRB) for input/output configuration.^[15]^[14] The CIAs offer critical timing functions through three timers per chip: two 16-bit general-purpose timers (A and B) for system clock generation and event counting in one-shot or continuous modes, and a 24-bit Time-of-Day (TOD) clock with registers (TODLO, TODMID, TODHI) for real-time tracking, typically driven by 50/60 Hz vertical sync or power line ticks. These timers enable interrupt generation to the 68000 processor via the Interrupt Control Register (ICR), sourcing events from timer underflow, TOD alarms, serial shifts, or flag pins—mapping to INT2 for CIA A and INT6 for CIA B. The architecture builds on the MOS 6526 CIA design but uses the 8520 variant optimized for Amiga's address-mapped bus, clocked at 0.715909 MHz in NTSC systems or 0.709379 MHz in PAL systems, derived from one-tenth of the CPU clock.^[15]^[14] This dual-CIA setup is standard across all Amiga models except the CD32, where the Akiko chip subsumes port handling functions for compactness, though it partially emulates CIA behavior to maintain compatibility. The CIAs remain vital for seamless integration with AmigaOS peripherals, ensuring reliable operation of legacy hardware.^[14]^[16]

Akiko

Akiko is a custom application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) introduced by Commodore in 1993 exclusively for the Amiga CD32 multimedia console. Packaged in a 160-pin plastic quad flat pack (PQFP), it functions as the primary system glue logic, integrating the CD-ROM controller, dual system timers, interfaces for mouse and keyboard ports via the serial AUX port, and access to the 8 Kbit EEPROM for non-volatile storage of settings and game data. This design allows Akiko to buffer data and generate control signals between the 68EC020 processor and other custom chips, streamlining the CD32's hardware architecture.^[17]^[18] Among its key functions, Akiko provides hardware acceleration for chunky-to-planar pixel conversion to enable 256-color (32-bit effective) video modes, performs CD audio mixing and output control via a separate 18-bit DAC, with attenuation capabilities, and routes interrupts (such as INT2 and INT6) across system components. The conversion process involves writing 32 8-bit chunky pixels sequentially to dedicated registers at address $B80038, after which the chip outputs eight 32-bit planar words that can be copied directly to the display buffer, reducing CPU overhead for graphics-intensive applications like 3D games. Additionally, it manages CD audio playback, including pause/resume and volume attenuation from 0 to 0x7FFF, akin to basic mixing features in chips like the Philips SAA1099.^[19]^[17]^[18] Technically, Akiko supports CD-ROM XA modes through commands like CD_READXL in the cd.device driver, employs an internal 8-bit chunky graphics buffer for video processing, and ensures compatibility with the ECS-era Denise chip while extending to the full AGA chipset for enhanced display capabilities. Its register set, mapped in the system's reserved memory space, facilitates mode switching for CD operations, graphics conversion, and peripheral control, with features like prefetching and error correction handled in coordination with the CPU. Akiko partially replaces discrete CIA functions for peripheral timing and I/O in the CD32 design.^[18]^[17]^[20] Akiko's unique role is to enable the CD32's console-oriented multimedia features, such as seamless CD-ROM data access and hardware-accelerated graphics, without necessitating additional discrete components beyond the core AGA chipset, thereby optimizing cost and performance for CD-based gaming and entertainment.^[19]^[17]

Bridgette

The Bridgette chip, designated as part number 391380-01, serves as an integrated bus buffer in the Amiga 4000 and A4000T models, designed to interface the 32-bit local bus with the expansion buses, including Zorro II and Zorro III slots.^[21]^[22] It was introduced with the Amiga 4000 in 1992 as a direct replacement for the discrete buffer components used in the earlier Amiga 3000, specifically integrating the functionality of six 74F646 transceivers and four 74F245 buffers to handle signal isolation and bidirectional data flow.^[23]^[21] Key functions of the Bridgette include bidirectional buffering of address and data lines between the CPU, chip, and I/O buses, ensuring proper signal isolation to prevent cross-talk and maintain data integrity during transfers to expansion peripherals.^[21]^[22] It also supports clock synchronization for bus operations, allowing reliable timing across the interconnected systems.^[24] This design significantly reduces the component count by replacing ten discrete TTL chips, thereby lowering costs, minimizing board real estate, and simplifying routing complexity compared to the Amiga 3000's discrete implementation, which enhances overall signal integrity.^[21]^[25] The chip is compatible with the Super Buster for bus arbitration in the A4000 architecture.^[24] Technical specifications include support for bus speeds up to 50 MHz, as utilized in A4000T configurations, and it features revisions tailored for compatibility with the Motorola 68060 CPU in tower models.^[26]^[27] Packaged in a 100-pin plastic quad flat package (PQFP), the Bridgette optimizes the desktop and tower variants of the A4000 series by streamlining the bus interface without compromising performance.^[25]

Memory Management and DMA

Ramsey and Super DMAC

The Ramsey chip (part number 390541) serves as the primary DRAM controller in the Amiga 3000 and A4000 series, managing up to 16 MB of 32-bit Fast RAM on the motherboard while separating it from the slower 16-bit Chip RAM used by custom graphics and audio hardware.^[28] It supports static column or page-mode DRAM configurations with optimized timing for 80 ns access, enabling efficient row address strobe (RAS) refresh cycles and burst access modes that allow the 68030 processor to fill its cache in fewer cycles for improved performance.^[29] This design significantly outperforms earlier Amiga memory subsystems.^[30] The Super DMAC (SDMAC, part number 390537) is an enhanced DMA controller that integrates closely with Ramsey to provide dedicated channels for peripheral transfers, particularly interfacing with the WD33C93 SCSI controller in A3000 and A4000 models.^[31] It supports 24-bit and 32-bit addressing modes, along with burst transfer capabilities, enabling direct 32-bit disk DMA for higher throughput in large data operations compared to prior 16-bit limitations.^[32] Ramsey generates addresses for SDMAC during these operations, ensuring seamless integration without interrupting CPU activity.^[33] Early revisions, such as Ramsey -04 paired with Super DMAC -02, were used in initial A3000 production starting in 1990, but later versions like Ramsey -07 and Super DMAC -04 (including a revision 3.1 update) resolved compatibility issues in A4000 systems, such as improved heat tolerance and stable addressing for expanded configurations.^[33] These chips, developed by Commodore between 1990 and 1992, were pivotal for the Enhanced Chip Set (ECS) and Advanced Graphics Architecture (AGA) eras, allowing Fast RAM to operate independently for CPU-intensive tasks while custom chips retained dedicated access to Chip RAM.^[31] Unlike standalone DMA controllers such as the 8727 used in accelerator expansions, Ramsey and Super DMAC focus on core motherboard memory and integrated I/O.^[33]

8727 DMA

The 8727 DMA is a custom large-scale integration (LSI) chip developed by Commodore for use in the A2090 and A2090A hard disk controller cards, enabling direct memory access (DMA) transfers specifically tailored for storage acceleration on Amiga systems. Introduced in 1988 as part of the A2090A, it supports both ST-506 (MFM) and SCSI interfaces, facilitating data movement between the Amiga's memory and attached hard drives without CPU intervention. This chip marked one of the earliest dedicated custom DMA solutions for Amiga expansion peripherals, optimizing performance for early hard disk operations in models like the A2000.^[34] At its core, the 8727 functions as a 24-bit DMA engine, utilizing three external address counters to handle up to 23 address lines (A23–A1) for memory addressing within the Amiga's 8 MB address space. It incorporates byte-to-word funneling to align data efficiently on the 16-bit Amiga bus and includes a built-in 64-byte first-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer that buffers incoming data from the storage interface, triggering host memory accesses only when the FIFO is half full to minimize bus contention. This design allows for block transfers of up to 512 bytes (256 words) or single-word (2-byte) operations, with larger transfers possible via software chaining of multiple blocks, and transfers occurring on even byte boundaries to maintain compatibility with the Amiga's memory architecture. The chip integrates seamlessly with the Amiga expansion bus via control lines like PCSS- and PCSD-, supporting real-time data rates of approximately 800 ns per byte for SCSI (equivalent to 1.25 MB/s) and 1.6 µs per byte for ST-506 (0.625 MB/s), resulting in low average bus overhead of about 17% during sector transfers.^[35] Programming the 8727 is register-based, with status bits accessible via data bus lines (e.g., DB7 for DMA completion, DB6 for byte availability, and DB5 for overflow/underflow conditions) to manage transfer initiation, monitoring, and error handling. It works in tandem with the NCR WD33C93 SCSI controller chip on the A2090A, where the 8727 handles DMA bursts while the WD33C93 manages protocol-level commands, either under direct control from the host 68000 CPU or via the onboard Z80 auxiliary processor. Interrupt generation supports completion notifications to the Amiga's interrupt system, ensuring reliable integration with the operating environment. Overall, these features provide scatter-gather-like mapping capabilities through chained address counter operations, though without explicit hardware descriptors, and ensure compatibility with WD1003-style ST-506 controllers via the Konan DJC-002 interface chip.^[35]^[34]

DMAC

The DMAC (Direct Memory Access Controller) is a custom 16-bit ASIC developed by Commodore International for handling DMA operations in multimedia and storage peripherals on the Amiga platform. It serves as the primary DMA interface in devices such as the CDTV multimedia console, the A570 CD-ROM expansion for the Amiga 500, and the A2091 SCSI hard drive controller card. By offloading data transfers from the CPU, the DMAC enables efficient handling of high-bandwidth streams, particularly for CD-ROM and SCSI-based storage.^[32]^[36] The DMAC interfaces directly with the Western Digital WD33C93A SCSI controller chip, providing a 16-bit DMA pathway to manage data movement between the SCSI bus and Amiga memory. Its core functions include 24-bit address generation for accessing the Zorro II expansion bus, support for DMA transfers of audio and video streams, and dedicated buffer management to handle CD-ROM data sectors efficiently. This setup allows for seamless integration with SCSI peripherals, where the DMAC acts as a bus master to arbitrate transfers without constant CPU oversight. It builds briefly on the design principles of the earlier 8727 DMA controller used in legacy hard drive accelerators.^[32]^[37] Key technical specifications of the DMAC include fallback to programmed I/O modes when DMA is unavailable, such as in systems lacking compatible expansion memory, and compatibility with the Enhanced Chip Set (ECS) architecture found in later Amiga models like the CDTV. While interrupt coalescing is not explicitly documented in primary hardware references, the chip supports efficient interrupt handling for SCSI operations. Transfer rates are capable of reaching up to 2 MB/s in synchronous SCSI mode, though practical performance is often limited by the peripheral, such as single-speed CD-ROM drives achieving around 150-170 kB/s. Variants like the DMAC-02 revision added support for synchronous transfers, improving throughput for multimedia applications.^[32]^[38] Developed around 1991 during Commodore's push into multimedia expansions, the DMAC was instrumental in enabling real-time CD audio extraction and playback without CPU intervention, a critical feature for the CDTV's set-top video player functionality and the A570's compatibility with CD+G and ISO 9660 discs. This off-CPU data handling reduced latency in audio/video pipelines, making it a foundational component for Amiga's early adoption of optical storage.^[37]^[38]

Kickstart

The Kickstart ROM serves as the bootstrap firmware for Amiga computers, containing the core components of AmigaOS including the executive, libraries, and device drivers. It is implemented as an EPROM or PROM chip with capacities of 256 KiB for version 1.x and 512 KiB for versions 2.x and 3.x. This ROM holds essential software routines that enable the system to initialize hardware and load the Workbench graphical user interface from disk or other media. Among its primary functions, the Kickstart acts as a bootloader to start the Workbench environment, performs hardware initialization for components such as the custom chips responsible for graphics and audio processing, and provides runtime support for these subsystems through pre-loaded libraries and drivers. The ROM is mapped to the address range starting at $F80000 in the Amiga's memory space, with the Ramsey chip facilitating this mapping during boot. It includes a built-in checksum at offset $3FFE8–$3FFEB for 256 KiB ROMs or $7FFE8–$7FFEB for 512 KiB ROMs for integrity verification upon power-on or reset.^[39] Technically, the Kickstart supports upgrades by burning new contents onto socketed EPROM chips, allowing users to replace the original mask ROM in compatible models. Version 1.3, released in 1987, marked a key early milestone with 256 KiB capacity and foundational OS support, while version 3.1 from 1994 expanded to 512 KiB and added compatibility for later hardware revisions. Historically, the Kickstart evolved from a disk-based bootstrap in the original Amiga 1000 to integrated mask ROM in models like the A500 and A2000, transitioning to socketed EPROM for easier field upgrades and ensuring compatibility across chipset generations.

Bus and Expansion

Buster

The Buster is a custom application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) developed by Commodore International for the Amiga 2000 and Amiga 2000B desktop computers, introduced in 1987 as part of the Amiga 2000's launch.^[40]^[41] It functions as the primary bus controller for the Zorro II expansion subsystem, integrating discrete logic from earlier Amiga designs to manage expansion operations in a modular architecture.^[22] As a central bus switch designated MOS 5721 (part number 318075-01 or -02), the Buster handles address decoding for the Zorro II memory space ($00200000–$009FFFFF) and I/O space ($00E80000–$00EFFFFF), ensuring proper mapping of expansion devices to the Amiga's 24-bit address bus.^[42]^[43] Key functions of the Buster include Zorro II slot arbitration, which coordinates access among multiple bus masters using cycle-by-cycle scheduling to prevent conflicts, and DMA granting, allowing expansion cards to perform direct memory access transfers to system RAM or chip RAM without CPU intervention.^[41]^[22] It supports up to 8 Zorro II slots in theory, though the Amiga 2000 implements 3 physical slots (plus video and CPU slots), with daisy-chained configuration lines (/CFGINn and /CFGOUTn) enabling device identification and resource allocation.^[43] Interrupt routing is managed via encoded lines (/INT2 and /INT6) in a wired-OR configuration, directing signals from expansion cards to the Amiga's interrupt controller. The chip ensures compatibility with the Agnus DMA controller by arbitrating shared access to the chip bus, facilitating 16-bit data transfers and 24-bit addressing for Zorro II devices while synchronizing with the Amiga's 7.16 MHz clock.^[43]^[44] The Buster implements the full Zorro II autoconfig protocol, a plug-and-play mechanism where devices self-identify during boot via reads from dedicated ROM space ($00F00000–$00FFFFFF), allowing the Kickstart ROM to assign resources like memory ranges and interrupts dynamically.^[43] Technical specifications encompass precise slot timing for synchronous operations, including a minimum transfer acknowledge setup time (TAFS) of 15 ns and slave valid output delay (TSLV) up to 25 ns, derived from F-series TTL logic standards to maintain bus integrity at 7.16 MHz.^[43] Power management provisions include supplying +5 VDC at up to 2 A per slot, along with -5 VDC (60 mA), +12 VDC (500 mA), and -12 VDC (60 mA), with total system limits of 8 A at +12 VDC to support expansion without overloading the power supply.^[43] These features made the Buster foundational to the Amiga's expandable design, later evolving into the Super Buster for enhanced capabilities.^[41]

Super Buster

The Super Buster, also known as the Fat Buster, is an enhanced variant of the original Buster chip designed as the primary bus controller for the Amiga 3000 and A4000 series computers, providing support for both 24-bit Zorro II and 32-bit Zorro III expansion buses.^[41] It features 32-bit address decoding, dual-bus arbitration between the local processor bus and expansion slots, and backward compatibility modes to emulate Zorro II behavior on Zorro III slots.^[45] Developed in 1990 by Commodore's engineering team, including designer Dave Haynie, the chip enables high-performance expansions such as advanced graphics cards and SCSI controllers by facilitating faster data transfers and improved system integration.^[45] Key functions of the Super Buster include managing Zorro III fast burst transfers for efficient 32-bit data movement, mapping configuration ROMs from expansion cards into the Amiga's memory space, and prioritizing DMA requests across multiple channels to prevent bus contention.^[45] It supports one local DMA channel for the 68030 processor and up to five expansion bus channels, with interrupt daisy-chaining to handle prioritized interrupts from peripherals.^[45] The chip also translates burst cycles from the local bus to Zorro III multiple-transfer cycles, ensuring compatibility with asynchronous bus timing derived from the motherboard clock.^[24] These capabilities allow for sustained bandwidths up to approximately 13 MB/s in Zorro III DMA operations, a significant improvement over Zorro II's limits.^[46] The Super Buster exists in multiple revisions, each packaged in an 84-pin PLCC for the A3000 and A4000 motherboards, with all versions pin-compatible for upgrades. Level I revisions (up to Rev 7, part number 390539-02 or similar) were used in early A3000 models and provide basic Zorro III support without full DMA for bus masters, limiting performance to single-cycle transfers.^[41] Level II revisions, starting with Rev 9 (390539-09) in the A4000, introduce full Zorro III burst mode and DMA but suffer from known bugs, including Zorro III bus arbitration lockups during multi-master contention and end-of-cycle synchronization issues that can cause DMA failures to Chip RAM.^[24] Rev 11 (390539-11), deployed in later A4000 and A4000T units, addresses these flaws with improved arbitration logic, a stronger STERM* signal driver, and enhanced buffering support, making it the most reliable version and essential for compatibility with demanding peripherals like the A4091 SCSI controller.^[41]

Budgie

The Budgie is a compact application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) designed specifically for the Amiga 1200 computer, serving as the controller for the trapdoor expansion slot to facilitate the addition of up to 8 MB of Fast RAM along with basic input/output (I/O) decoding.^[47] Introduced in 1992 with the launch of the Amiga 1200, it provided a cost-effective mechanism for consumer-level memory upgrades, allowing users to enhance system performance without the need for a full expansion bus system.^[48] Key functions of the Budgie include memory banking, which enables seamless switching between the motherboard's resources and the expansion module's Fast RAM; address aliasing prevention via precise decoding to avoid memory conflicts; and support for 72-pin single in-line memory modules (SIMMs) commonly used in Fast RAM configurations.^[47] Unlike more advanced controllers, it lacks full direct memory access (DMA) capabilities, restricting operations to straightforward CPU-driven memory reads and writes.^[49] Technically, the Budgie features a 32-bit data path that integrates directly with the Amiga 1200's local bus, ensuring efficient handling of processor-memory interactions while incorporating power sequencing logic to safely initialize expansion hardware.^[47] Its design prioritizes simplicity and compatibility within the compact A1200 form factor, while providing support for Zorro II-compatible expansions through the trapdoor slot, though primarily utilized for memory upgrades and basic peripherals.^[49]^[50] In essence, the Budgie functions as a simplified counterpart to the Buster chip found in prior Amiga models, tailored for basic expansion needs.^[50]

Video Support

390562

The 390562, also known as the Hedley Controller, is a custom frame buffer controller chip developed by MOS Technology for Commodore's A2024 high-resolution monitor and expansion card, designed to extend Amiga graphics capabilities to external standard displays. Released in 1988, it enables resolutions ranging from 640×480 to 1024×1024 while supporting 4-bit greyscale (monochrome with 4 levels), allowing Amiga systems to output detailed imagery suitable for professional applications like desktop publishing and CAD.^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54] Central to the A2024's operation, the 390562 integrates directly with a RAMDAC to manage digital-to-analog conversion for precise color rendering, generates horizontal and vertical sync signals to ensure stable monitor synchronization in both progressive and interlaced formats, and implements flicker reduction through line doubling techniques that interpolate and smooth the Amiga's native low-refresh-rate output for clearer viewing. It supports seamless switching between VGA-compatible modes for standard PC monitors and native Amiga display timings, making it a versatile bridge for early multimedia and graphics workstations.^[55]^[56]^[57] Key technical specifications include a dedicated 256 KB VRAM buffer composed of eight 64K×4 dynamic RAM chips for temporary frame storage and processing, and full compatibility with the Original Chip Set (OCS) and Enhanced Chip Set (ECS) found in Amiga 500, 2000, and related models. This configuration allows the chip to handle data transfers from the Amiga's Denise video chip efficiently, buffering up to four screen quadrants independently for optimized rendering in extended modes like 1008×800 (NTSC) or 1024×1024 (PAL).^[58]^[52]^[53] By offloading frame buffering and signal adaptation from the host Amiga, the 390562 effectively expands the system's display options without requiring onboard hardware modifications, positioning the A2024 as a key accessory for users seeking flicker-free, high-fidelity output on conventional monitors. It complements the Vidiot DAC by focusing on external monitor frame control rather than primary video generation.^[55]^[56]

Amber

The Amber chip (part number 390538-03) is a custom ASIC developed by Commodore for flicker fixation and scan doubling in Amiga systems, integrated internally in the Amiga 3000 and Amiga 3000T workstations and externally via the A2320 expansion card for the Amiga 2000 and compatible models.^[59]^[60] It employs three 1-Mbit CMOS frame memories to buffer alternate video fields, enabling real-time storage and blending of scan lines through a dual-port-like architecture that supports simultaneous read and write operations for 12-bit pixel data.^[60] Introduced in 1990 alongside the Amiga 3000, the chip enhances display quality for professional applications by converting the Amiga's native 15 kHz interlaced output to a progressive 31 kHz signal suitable for standard VGA/SVGA monitors.^[46]^[60] Key functions of the Amber include real-time de-interlacing, which combines odd and even fields to eliminate flicker in high-resolution interlaced modes such as 640x400, and line-doubling for non-interlaced modes like 640x256, effectively doubling vertical resolution without introducing motion artifacts.^[60] It supports resolution enhancement up to 800x600 progressive scan, including overscan modes (e.g., 768x489 NTSC), while maintaining compatibility with ECS and AGA chipsets for seamless operation across Amiga video modes.^[60]^[61] Additionally, the chip provides genlock support, allowing synchronization with external NTSC/PAL video sources such as Mimetics AmiGen or Digital Creations SuperGen devices, which is particularly valuable for broadcast and video production workflows.^[60] Technically, the Amber's 384 KB field store (derived from its three 1-Mbit memories) implements a line-doubling algorithm that processes video at twice the original rate, reducing visible scan lines and flicker in demanding high-res modes while outputting via a 15-pin HD15 VGA connector.^[60] This design builds briefly on earlier buffering concepts seen in chips like the 390562, but focuses specifically on progressive scan conversion for flicker reduction.^[59] Overall, the Amber significantly improves the Amiga's display fidelity for professional use, enabling flicker-free viewing on multiscan monitors like the Commodore 1950 without requiring mode-specific adjustments.^[60]

Vidiot

The Vidiot, also referred to as the Video Hybrid (part number 390229), is a custom hybrid integrated circuit functioning as a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) for video output in OCS and ECS Amiga systems. It converts the 12-bit digital RGB video signals—comprising 4 bits per red, green, and blue channel—generated by the Denise chip into analog signals suitable for display devices.^[62] This chip was introduced in 1985 as a standard component in early Amiga models, including the A1000, A500, A2000, and A3000, enabling high-quality video rendering without significant modifications until the transition to the AGA chipset.^[63] The Vidiot supports multiple output formats, including direct RGB for analog monitors, composite video, and RF modulation for television connectivity. It handles color palettes compatible with both PAL and NTSC broadcast standards, incorporating sync insertion to ensure proper timing and signal synchronization for stable displays. The design features three parallel DAC sections for RGB, each using a binary-weighted resistor ladder network to perform the digital-to-analog conversion, followed by NPN transistor amplification stages that drive the outputs at 75-ohm impedance for impedance matching and signal preservation.^[62] In the Amiga 3000, the system employs two Vidiot instances to accommodate dual video paths: one dedicated to the 15 kHz composite output for TV compatibility and another for the 31 kHz RGB output supporting higher-resolution monitor modes, such as those up to 1084p equivalents. This configuration allows simultaneous support for broadcast and computer display standards. The Vidiot's architecture provided sufficient bandwidth for OCS/ECS video demands but saw minimal evolution, ultimately being replaced by the integrated Lisa DAC in the 1992 AGA chipset for enhanced 24-bit color handling.^[62]^[63] For certain extended video configurations, the Vidiot interfaces with the 390562 chip to facilitate additional output options.^[63]

References

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Waiting for the Bus: Custom chips on the original Amiga controlled access to the video RAM—the only memory available on standard models—so that the CPU did not ...
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AMIGA HARDWARE REFERENCE MANUAL. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ... The custom chips can only access CHIP memory; using a non-CHIP address ...
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The enhanced Denise chip provides the new SuperHires mode with up to 1280 horizontal pixels per scanline on a standard NTSC or PAL display. All of the standard ...
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Your Amiga is built around the AGA (AA) custom chipset, which supersedes the earlier ECS and original chipsets in graphics capability.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Gary - Commodore - Big Book of Amiga Hardware
The Gary chip provides bus traffic control signals for the A500/A600/A2000 address and data bus. It was a consolidation of a large amount of descrete 74-series ...
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gary.txt
A500/A2000 Gary Specification 1. DEFINITION 1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION This IC contains miscellaneous control circuitry which provides interface and control ...
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how the amiga reads floppies - techtravels.org
Sep 28, 2008 · The Amiga uses four chips: two CIA chips for drive control, Gary for motor and write data, and Paula for processing read data and DMA.Missing: glue | Show results with:glue
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The main intent of the Zorro m bus is to allow fast 32-bit peripherals and memory devices to be added to a high performance. Amiga, such as the Amiga 3000, ...
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The Gayle chip is responsible for controlling the 2.5" non-buffered IDE controller found in the A600, A1200 and the 3.5" buffered IDE controller found in the A ...Missing: ATA | Show results with:ATA
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[18]
None
Summary of each segment:
[19]
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The Akiko chip is only found in the CD32 and is primarily responsible for peforming the chunky to planar routines.<|separator|>
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... super DMAC. SDMAC SDMAC is a new improved version of the 4701 series of disk & SCSI DMA controllers. SDMAC allows us to provide 32 bit Direct Disk DMA. It ...
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The DMAC and SDMAC are the C= custom chips which front the WD33C93A SCSI controller IC, and perform DMA transfer functions for that SCSI interface chip.
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the 33C93 chip can be controlled by either the 68000 (default) or by the Z80; DMA transfers are provided by the custom Commodore 8727 IC featuring a 64 byte ...
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The DMA is a Commodore custom LSI chip (8727) with byte to word funneling and a built in 64 byte FIFO. The internal. 64 byte FIFO permits real time data ...
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sixteen DIP sockets accept 0.5, 1 or 2 MB RAM · supports 256k×4 (44256) chips, 120 ns or faster · cannot use DMA to transfer data to 32 bit fast RAM · if Zorro II ...Missing: CDTV A570
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For Zorro II modes, it is equivalent to the 68000's Data Transfer Acknowledge input. It can be asserted by the bus slave during a Zorro II cycle at any time, ...
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Mar 11, 2020 · Without getting super technical we will go over the basic functions of these chips. Gary – System address decoder. Paula – Audio and I/O ...Missing: logic | Show results with:logic<|control11|><|separator|>
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One local bus 68030-protocol DMA channel. • Five expansion bus Zorro II/Zorro III protocol DMA channels, with fair arbitration within channel groups. • Eight ...
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Mar 3, 2020 · Amiga 1200 Spec. Processor: Motorola 68EC020 (68020) microprocessor running at around 14 MHz. Ram: 2MB of chip RAM Chipset: Advanced Graphics ...
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Oct 22, 2019 · This IS a beginner's guide, there are three core chips in each chipset and they handle the chip ram controller and coprocessors, the display output, and sound ...
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Budgie is a DRAM and bus controller, only found in the A1200. The Budgie chip in some ways is like a baby version of the buster chip as it also handles the ...
[50]
Commodore monitors - Gona
1988-Dec-7 (release date of the Workbench 1.3/2024), 1984, 1987-Mar? 1985 ... The power LED of the Commodore A2024 is in the Commodore logo. Red one ...
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A2024 - Commodore - Big Book of Amiga Hardware
Dec 22, 2004 · The A2024 ( The A2024 was also known as the "Hedley Hi-Res" monitor as it was designed by Hedley Davis) is a monochrome monitor with four ...
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Commodore A2024 Monitor : A Monitor for Serious Amigans
It can do 1024 x 1024 in PAL, and 1024 x 800 in NTSC. It is also known as the "Hedley Hires" monitor, as it was designed by Commodore engineer Hedley Davis.Missing: 390562 Controller
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Since 2001... Your BEST source for Amiga information... Again
Big Old List of *EVERY* Custom Amiga Chip and Chipset Name I Could Find (20 Feb 24) ... 8727 DMA, Chip - Disk, Yes, Used w/A2090(A) ST-506/SCSI controller ...
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[55]
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Mar 1, 2018 · The difference is that while those other adapters combined two 4-bit pixels into one higher-color 8-bit pixel to give you more colors at lower ...Hedley Davis on the Hedley Davis Hi-Res Monitor - Amiga.orgInterested in an A2024? - Page 1 - Amiga.orgMore results from forum.amiga.orgMissing: 390562 Controller
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[PDF] CRCommodore - AMIGA A2024 - Gona
1008x800 pixels for ...Missing: 390562 Hedley<|control11|><|separator|>
[57]
Amber - Custom Chips - Big Book of Amiga Hardware
The Amber is responsible for scandoubling and flicker fixing the Amiga's native display (~15.5Khz) to ~31Khz for output to a standard PC VGA/SVGA monitor.
[58]
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The A2320 will automatically provide you with a flicker-free high- resolution display of the Amiga's output. The genlock will function normally and provide the ...
[59]
Georg Braun A2320-AGA - Amiga Hardware Database
uses two Amber chips to achieve 24 bit colour depth; doubles all 15.75 kHz screen modes to 31.5 kHz; dual port static RAM bank; full overscan support; bypass ...
[60]
SukkoPera/OpenAmigaVideoHybrid - GitHub
Jul 20, 2018 · The Video Hybrid, also known as VIDIOT, is a hybrid integrated circuit acting as a Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC), which converts the ...Missing: 391155 | Show results with:391155
[61]
Video DAC - Amiga Wiki
Sep 22, 2024 · It consists of three, high speed, 8-bit, video D/A converters (RGB); a standard TTL input interface and high impedance, analog output, current ...Missing: Vidiot | Show results with:Vidiot