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Fever of unknown origin

Fever of unknown origin (FUO) is a diagnostic challenge defined as a body temperature of 38.3°C (101°F) or higher on several occasions, lasting at least three weeks, in patients who remain undiagnosed after an initial evaluation including history, physical examination, and basic laboratory tests such as complete blood count, blood cultures, and imaging.^[1] This condition was first formalized in 1961 by Petersdorf and Beeson, who established the classic criteria to distinguish FUO from self-limited febrile illnesses, though the definition has since evolved to include subtypes like nosocomial (hospital-acquired), neutropenic (in immunocompromised patients), and HIV-related FUO.^[2]^[1] The etiologies of FUO are diverse and categorized into four main groups: infections, neoplasms, non-infectious inflammatory diseases, and miscellaneous causes. Infections account for 16% to 55% of cases and include tuberculosis, endocarditis, and abscesses, particularly predominant in developing countries. Neoplasms represent 7% to 35% and commonly involve lymphomas or solid tumors like renal cell carcinoma. Non-infectious inflammatory diseases, such as adult-onset Still's disease, giant cell arteritis, or systemic lupus erythematosus, comprise 11% to 34% and are more frequent in developed regions. Miscellaneous causes, including drug-induced fever or factitious fever, make up the remainder, while 7% to 51% of cases remain undiagnosed even after extensive investigation.^[3]^[1]^[4] Epidemiologically, FUO affects all age groups but is more common in adults, with incidence varying by geography and healthcare access; in industrialized nations, undiagnosed rates are higher due to advanced initial screening excluding obvious causes. The evaluation of FUO requires a systematic approach, starting with a detailed history and physical exam to identify potential diagnostic clues, followed by targeted tests like serologies, echocardiography, computed tomography (CT), and increasingly, 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/CT (FDG-PET/CT), which demonstrates 85% to 86% sensitivity in identifying the source. Despite advances, FUO persists as a clinical enigma, emphasizing the need for multidisciplinary management to avoid unnecessary interventions.^[3]^[1]^[3]

Overview

Definition

Fever of unknown origin (FUO) is a clinical syndrome characterized by a documented temperature of 38.3°C (101°F) or higher on several occasions, persisting for at least three weeks, in a patient who remains undiagnosed after an initial evaluation that includes a thorough medical history, physical examination, and basic laboratory tests such as complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and urinalysis.^[1]^[5]^[6] This definition, originally established by Petersdorf and Beeson in 1961, emphasizes the prolonged and unexplained nature of the fever, distinguishing it from transient febrile episodes. The evaluation threshold ensures that only cases refractory to standard outpatient assessment qualify, preventing overclassification of routine fevers. Recent guidelines have proposed refinements to the temperature threshold to better align with contemporary understandings of normal body temperature ranges. For instance, a 2025 BMJ review recommends a threshold of ≥38.0°C for rectal or tympanic measurements, as this reflects the upper limit of normal core temperature in adults and may capture a broader yet clinically relevant group without diluting the syndrome's specificity.^[7] A 2024 modified Delphi consensus panel upheld the classic criteria of fever ≥38.3°C for ≥3 weeks but emphasized a standardized minimal diagnostic workup, including history, physical exam, basic labs, and targeted imaging, to improve diagnostic consistency across settings.^[8] This adjustment aims to incorporate modern measurement techniques and population-based data on baseline temperatures, though the traditional 38.3°C criterion remains widely used in practice.^[9] FUO excludes self-limited illnesses that resolve spontaneously within three weeks, as these do not meet the duration requirement and typically do not warrant extensive investigation.^[10] In contrast, fever without source refers to an elevated temperature of shorter duration—often less than one week—without an identified cause after a preliminary assessment, commonly seen in pediatric populations and managed with less intensive workup.^[11] This distinction underscores FUO's focus on persistent, diagnostically challenging cases requiring systematic evaluation.

Historical Background

The recognition of prolonged fevers without an identifiable cause dates back to the early 20th century, when such cases were commonly described in medical literature as "occult fevers" and frequently attributed to infectious diseases like tuberculosis, which was a leading cause of unexplained febrile illnesses in that era.^[12] These fevers posed significant diagnostic challenges before the widespread availability of modern laboratory and imaging tools, often leading to empirical treatments or prolonged observation without resolution. The advent of antibiotics in the mid-20th century began to alter this landscape by addressing many infectious etiologies more effectively, reducing the proportion of truly undiagnosed cases from over 75% in the 1930s to less than 10% by the 1950s.^[13] The formal concept of fever of unknown origin (FUO) was established in 1961 by Robert G. Petersdorf and Paul B. Beeson, who analyzed 100 cases and defined it as an illness of at least three weeks' duration with a temperature exceeding 38.3°C on several occasions, undiagnosed after one week of inpatient evaluation.^[14] In their seminal study, infections accounted for 36% of cases, neoplasms and collagen vascular diseases each for 19%, miscellaneous causes for 19%, and only 7% remained undiagnosed, highlighting the value of systematic investigation even with limited diagnostics at the time.^[15] This definition provided a standardized framework that shifted FUO from a vague clinical puzzle to a diagnosable syndrome, influencing subsequent research and practice. Post-1961, refinements to the criteria reflected evolving medical capabilities, with Durack and Street in 1991 proposing a more flexible evaluation period of three inpatient days or three outpatient visits, alongside classifications for nosocomial, immunocompromised, and HIV-associated FUO to accommodate changing patient populations and therapies.^[16] The integration of antibiotics, echocardiography, computed tomography, and positron emission tomography has further decreased undiagnosed rates to under 10% in many modern cohorts, though variability persists across settings, with rates as low as 8% in resource-rich environments.^[15]

Classification

Fever of unknown origin (FUO) is classified into subtypes based on clinical context, as originally proposed by Durack and Street in 1991, to guide evaluation: classic, nosocomial, immunocompromised, and HIV-associated. Recent expert consensus, such as the 2024 international Delphi panel, recommends standardizing minimal initial diagnostic tests (e.g., history, physical examination, basic laboratories, chest X-ray, and epidemiology-guided imaging) before applying these classifications, without significantly altering the core criteria.^[8]

Classic FUO

Classic fever of unknown origin (FUO) refers to prolonged fever in community-acquired cases among immunocompetent adults, distinct from hospital-onset or immunocompromised variants. The original criteria, established in 1961, defined classic FUO as an illness lasting at least three weeks with a temperature exceeding 38.3°C on several occasions, undiagnosed after one week of inpatient investigation.^[2] Contemporary adaptations reflect advances in diagnostic capabilities, updating the evaluation threshold to no diagnosis after three outpatient visits or three days of hospitalization, while retaining the core requirements of fever ≥38.3°C for >3 weeks.^[17]^[1] The initial evaluation for classic FUO must yield negative results to meet diagnostic criteria, encompassing a thorough history, physical examination, and basic laboratory tests such as complete blood count (CBC), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), blood and urine cultures, chest X-ray, and metabolic panel.^[1] Obvious localizing symptoms—such as those suggesting focal infection or inflammation—or fevers that resolve spontaneously within the timeframe are excluded, as they do not qualify as FUO.^[17] This ensures the syndrome applies only to persistent, unexplained fevers without evident clues from standard assessments.^[1] Classic FUO commonly presents in outpatient settings, where patients often seek care for recurrent fevers without recent hospitalization. Accurate documentation is essential, typically achieved through patient-maintained fever diaries or serial thermometer readings to confirm the temperature threshold and pattern, such as intermittent or continuous elevation.^[1] Emphasis in recent guidelines underscores prioritizing the exclusion of common infections (e.g., tuberculosis, endocarditis) and malignancies (e.g., lymphoma) through targeted history and initial testing before pursuing advanced diagnostics.^[1]

Nosocomial FUO

Nosocomial fever of unknown origin (FUO) refers to fever developing in hospitalized patients, distinct from community-onset cases, and is characterized by a temperature greater than 38.3°C (100.9°F) occurring on several occasions in a patient who has been hospitalized for at least 24 hours without fever or an incubating infection upon admission.^[18] The fever must develop more than 72 hours after admission or recur within 3 days of hospital discharge, excluding the initial 24 hours following surgery to account for common postoperative inflammatory responses, with no established diagnosis after 3 days of appropriate investigation.^[1]^[17] This classification, originally proposed by Durack and Street in 1991, emphasizes healthcare-associated etiologies and facilitates prompt evaluation in the inpatient setting.^[16] Common causes of nosocomial FUO are predominantly iatrogenic or procedure-related, including hospital-acquired infections such as central line-associated bloodstream infections (e.g., line-related sepsis from intravascular devices), Clostridium difficile colitis, and septic thrombophlebitis.^[18]^[1] Noninfectious etiologies frequently involve drug-induced fevers from antibiotics, antiepileptics, or other medications administered during hospitalization, as well as thromboembolic events like pulmonary embolism or deep vein thrombosis, often linked to immobilization or surgical interventions.^[18]^[1] Less common contributors include transfusion reactions, sinusitis in patients with nasogastric tubes, and occult malignancies unmasked by the hospital stay.^[18] The 2022 American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) guideline on fever of unknown origin recommends a higher threshold for extensive FUO evaluation in hospitalized patients, prioritizing targeted initial assessments for nosocomial infections to mitigate risks of overlooking common hospital-acquired pathogens before escalating to advanced diagnostics.^[11] In contrast to classic FUO, which requires a prolonged duration of at least 3 weeks for diagnosis due to outpatient evaluation challenges, nosocomial FUO employs a shorter 3-day investigation period, reflecting the ready availability of inpatient resources like imaging and cultures for rapid etiology identification.^[18]^[1]

Immunocompromised FUO

Immunocompromised fever of unknown origin (FUO) refers to persistent fever in patients with impaired immune function due to neutropenia, solid organ or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, chemotherapy, or other immunosuppressive therapies, distinct from hospital-acquired or HIV-related cases. The criteria, as outlined in the seminal classification by Durack and Street, specify a temperature of ≥38.3°C on several occasions with a neutrophil count of ≤500/μL for ≥3 days without an established diagnosis after appropriate initial investigation in neutropenic patients; for non-neutropenic immunocompromised individuals, the fever duration extends to ≥3 weeks, undiagnosed after 1 week of inpatient evaluation or equivalent outpatient assessment.^[1]^[5] This subclass recognizes the heightened vulnerability to rapid deterioration, necessitating expedited diagnostics tailored to the degree of immunosuppression.^[16] The etiologies of immunocompromised FUO predominantly involve opportunistic infections, which account for a significant proportion of cases due to breaches in host defenses. Common infectious causes include fungal pathogens such as Aspergillus species and Candida, viral agents like cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and atypical bacteria or parasites including Pneumocystis jirovecii in transplant recipients. Noninfectious etiologies are also prominent, particularly graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) in hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients, where donor T-cells attack host tissues, and post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD), often EBV-driven B-cell proliferations arising from iatrogenic immunosuppression.^[19] These causes differ from those in immunocompetent hosts by their propensity for dissemination and subtlety in presentation, often requiring advanced imaging or biopsy for identification.^[1] Management prioritizes rapid empirical therapy in high-risk scenarios, particularly neutropenia, where broad-spectrum antibiotics such as an antipseudomonal beta-lactam (e.g., cefepime) are initiated immediately to cover gram-negative and gram-positive organisms, given the high risk of bacteremia.^[20] In non-neutropenic cases, empirical antimicrobials are withheld unless sepsis is suspected, favoring a stepwise diagnostic approach including blood cultures, serum beta-D-glucan or galactomannan assays for fungi, CMV PCR, and positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) to detect occult infections or malignancies.^[1] For GVHD or PTLD, immunosuppressive adjustment or rituximab may be considered once confirmed, but only after excluding infection.^[19] Delayed diagnosis in immunocompromised FUO contributes to elevated mortality, often exceeding 20-30% in untreated opportunistic infections or progressive GVHD, underscoring the need for multidisciplinary involvement including infectious disease specialists.^[11] Prognosis improves with early intervention, though overall outcomes remain poorer than in classic FUO due to underlying immune deficits.^[1]

HIV-Associated FUO

HIV-associated fever of unknown origin (FUO) is defined as a fever of at least 38.3°C on several occasions lasting more than three weeks in patients with known HIV infection, or more than one week in undiagnosed individuals with HIV risk factors, after initial basic evaluation fails to identify a cause.^[21]^[22] This classification emphasizes the need for expedited evaluation in high-risk undiagnosed cases to prevent progression to advanced disease. Unlike classic FUO, HIV-associated cases often reflect underlying immunosuppression, with opportunistic processes predominating when CD4 counts are low. The CD4 count plays a central role in risk stratification for HIV-associated FUO, as counts below 200 cells/μL significantly elevate the likelihood of opportunistic infections and AIDS-defining conditions.^[21] For instance, in patients with CD4 counts under 50 cells/μL, disseminated infections such as Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) are particularly common, presenting with prolonged fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Other key infectious causes include Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP), which may manifest subacutely with fever and respiratory symptoms in those with CD4 counts between 50 and 200 cells/μL, and various mycobacterial infections like tuberculosis.^[23]^[24] Noninfectious etiologies are also prominent, including AIDS-related malignancies such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma, which can cause B symptoms including fever in up to 30% of cases, and drug reactions to antiretroviral therapies (ART) or other medications, mimicking infectious processes.^[23]^[25] Initiation of ART is pivotal in managing HIV-associated FUO, as it addresses the underlying immunodeficiency and can resolve fevers related to opportunistic infections, though it may also precipitate immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). IRIS, occurring in 10-25% of patients starting ART with low CD4 counts, presents as paradoxical worsening of fever or new inflammatory symptoms due to restored immune responses against residual pathogens, such as MAC or PCP antigens.^[26]^[27] In such cases, continuing ART while managing IRIS with anti-inflammatory agents is recommended to avoid delaying viral suppression and immune recovery.^[28] Overall, early ART integration, guided by CD4 levels and targeted diagnostics like blood cultures or biopsies, improves outcomes in this population.^[21]

Epidemiology

Prevalence and Incidence

Fever of unknown origin (FUO) represents a small but significant portion of hospital admissions, accounting for 1% to 3% of inpatient evaluations for prolonged fever in internal medicine settings worldwide.^[29]^[30] In high-income countries, this rate is typically lower due to more accessible initial diagnostic resources that resolve many cases before they meet FUO criteria.^[1] Precise population-based incidence figures are not well-established, though FUO is considered rare at the community level.^[1] This trend underscores a broader reduction in FUO presentations, as many potential cases are now identified and treated earlier in the disease course.^[29] Historically, the proportion of undiagnosed FUO cases has declined from 20% to 30% in studies from the 1960s to approximately 10% to 20% in contemporary series, reflecting improvements in diagnostic capabilities over decades.^[31]^[15] Geographically, incidence is higher in tropical and low-resource regions, where endemic infections contribute to a greater burden of unresolved fevers, compared to high-income areas where non-infectious causes predominate after initial workup.^[1]^[32]

Demographic Patterns

Fever of unknown origin (FUO) demonstrates notable variations across demographic groups, influencing its presentation and underlying etiologies. In adults, the condition peaks in older age groups, with a mean age of 58 years and approximately 45% of cases occurring in patients over 65 years old, where malignancies represent a significant proportion of diagnoses, often ranging from 7% to 18% of cases.^[33]^[34] Pediatric FUO, typically defined by a fever lasting at least 8 days without an identified source, predominantly affects children from infancy to adolescence, with infections accounting for 37% to 51% of cases overall and up to 73% in those under 1 year old; the incidence among hospitalized children is estimated at 0.5% to 3%.^[35]^[36] Up to 49% of pediatric FUO cases resolve spontaneously without a definitive diagnosis.^[35] Sex patterns in adult FUO reveal a slight male predominance, with males comprising about 59% of cases (a ratio of approximately 1.4:1), potentially associated with elevated rates of infections and malignancies in this group.^[33] In pediatric cohorts, sex distribution is more balanced, showing no significant differences across etiologies.^[37] Geographic factors play a key role in FUO demographics, with infections comprising up to 51% of cases in low- and middle-income countries compared to 15% to 49% in high-income regions like Europe and North America, where noninfectious inflammatory disorders predominate.^[34] Travel-related exposures heighten risk, particularly for vector-borne infections, which account for around 20% of FUO diagnoses in certain contexts.^[33] Comorbidities are common in FUO patients, affecting 75% of adults, including 26% with active cancer, which complicates diagnosis and increases vulnerability to prolonged fever.^[33]

Causes

Infections

Infections account for 20 to 40 percent of cases of fever of unknown origin (FUO), with proportions reaching up to 55 percent in developing countries due to the higher prevalence of endemic pathogens such as tuberculosis and malaria.^[21]^[38] This category encompasses a range of microbial agents, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites, often presenting with subtle or localized symptoms that evade initial detection. In resource-limited settings, community-acquired infections predominate, comprising over 90 percent of infectious FUO cases.^[39] Extrapulmonary tuberculosis, including miliary and disseminated forms, is a prominent bacterial cause, representing a substantial fraction of infectious FUO—up to 17 percent in studies from low- and middle-income countries—and often accounts for 10 to 15 percent of all FUO cases globally, especially in high-burden regions.^[39]^[1] Diagnostic clues include night sweats, weight loss, and lymphadenopathy, with confirmation typically requiring acid-fast bacilli smears, nucleic acid amplification tests, or biopsy.^[5] Other bacterial etiologies involve hidden abscesses, such as intra-abdominal or pelvic collections, and endovascular infections like subacute bacterial endocarditis, which together contribute to 15 to 20 percent of infectious FUO in surveyed cohorts.^[39] Occult bacteremias from zoonotic pathogens, including Brucella species (linked to unpasteurized dairy consumption) and Coxiella burnetii (Q fever, associated with livestock exposure), are notable for their insidious onset and potential for chronicity, often mimicking rheumatic diseases.^[5]^[1] Viral infections, though less common than bacterial causes, play a role in adult FUO, with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) implicated as uncommon causes, particularly in immunocompetent hosts presenting with prolonged mononucleosis-like syndromes.^[5] Parasitic infections are geographically restricted but critical in travelers; malaria (Plasmodium species) is a leading cause of fever in returnees from sub-Saharan Africa or Southeast Asia, accounting for 14% to 35% of undifferentiated fevers in such travelers and often featuring cyclic fevers and hemolytic anemia.^[39]^[40] Guidelines emphasize early microbiologic evaluation for infectious FUO, recommending at least three sets of blood cultures from separate venipuncture sites before antibiotics to detect bacteremia. A 2024 modified Delphi consensus panel updated criteria for FUO evaluation, recommending comprehensive initial testing including blood cultures.^[1]^[8] Serologic testing is prioritized for targeted pathogens, such as IgM for CMV and EBV, Brucella agglutinins, and Q fever phase I/II antibodies, alongside travel history to guide malaria thick/thin smears or rapid diagnostic tests.^[21]^[41] These approaches, informed by consensus panels, aim to identify treatable infections promptly while minimizing unnecessary invasive procedures.^[8]

Malignancies

Malignancies represent a significant proportion of cases of fever of unknown origin (FUO) in adults, accounting for 20% to 30% of etiologies, with the incidence rising notably in older patients due to the increased prevalence of neoplastic diseases.^[11] This proportion contrasts with lower rates in younger populations, where infections predominate, highlighting the age-related shift toward oncologic causes in prolonged fevers.^[1] Fever in these scenarios typically arises as a paraneoplastic phenomenon, driven by mechanisms such as direct tumor necrosis releasing pyrogenic substances or the production of proinflammatory cytokines like interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor by the malignant cells.^[15] Hematologic malignancies, particularly lymphomas and leukemias, are the most frequent neoplastic contributors to FUO. Lymphomas, encompassing both Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, are especially prominent, often comprising the majority of malignancy-related FUO cases and presenting with characteristic B symptoms including unexplained fever, drenching night sweats, and weight loss greater than 10% of body weight.^[1] In Hodgkin lymphoma, a cyclic fever pattern known as Pel-Ebstein fever—characterized by week-long episodes of high fever alternating with afebrile periods—may occur, though it is less common in modern presentations.^[1] Leukemias, such as acute myeloid leukemia, similarly induce FUO through bone marrow infiltration and cytokine-mediated systemic effects, frequently accompanied by findings like sternal tenderness on physical examination.^[11] Solid tumors also cause FUO, albeit less commonly than hematologic malignancies, through similar cytokine-driven pathways or local tissue destruction. Renal cell carcinoma stands out as a classic example, often manifesting with fever in up to 20% of cases at diagnosis, sometimes as the sole initial symptom due to tumor-related erythropoietin production and associated paraneoplastic syndromes.^[1] Hepatocellular carcinoma likewise presents with FUO in advanced stages, linked to hepatic necrosis and inflammatory responses, particularly in patients with underlying liver disease.^[11] Other solid tumors, including colorectal and pancreatic cancers, may contribute but typically reveal themselves through additional clues like unintentional weight loss or early satiety.^[1] Positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) plays a pivotal role in diagnosing occult malignancies in FUO, offering a diagnostic yield of approximately 25% to 60% across studies, with particularly high sensitivity (up to 100%) for detecting neoplastic foci when malignancy is the underlying cause.^[42] This imaging modality excels by localizing metabolically active tumors, guiding subsequent biopsies of lymph nodes, liver, or bone marrow, and altering management in 20% to 30% of cases where an undetected neoplasm is responsible for the fever.^[43] Early integration of FDG-PET/CT in the diagnostic algorithm is recommended after initial nondiagnostic evaluations, as it outperforms conventional CT in identifying hidden malignancies.^[1]

Autoimmune and Rheumatic Diseases

Autoimmune and rheumatic diseases represent a significant noninfectious inflammatory etiology in fever of unknown origin (FUO), accounting for 10% to 30% of cases in adults.^[11] These conditions often present with prolonged fever alongside systemic inflammation, elevated acute-phase reactants such as erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein (CRP), and absence of identifiable infection.^[11] The fever in these disorders typically arises from dysregulated immune responses, including cytokine-mediated mechanisms that elevate the hypothalamic set point for body temperature.^[44] Adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD) is a prominent example, comprising approximately 5% to 10% of FUO cases.^[45] It manifests with high spiking fevers, evanescent salmon-colored rash, and arthralgias or arthritis in 75% to 95% of patients.^[46] Laboratory findings often include marked leukocytosis, elevated ESR and CRP, and ferritin levels exceeding 1,000 ng/mL, aiding in differentiation from infectious causes.^[11] Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can also underlie FUO, particularly when fever precedes other classic features like rash or joint involvement.^[47] Vasculitis syndromes, such as giant cell arteritis (temporal arteritis), contribute to FUO through widespread vascular inflammation, often with elevated ESR and CRP.^[11] Sarcoidosis similarly presents with persistent fever due to granulomatous inflammation, frequently accompanied by hilar lymphadenopathy on imaging and hypercalcemia.^[11] In these rheumatic conditions, fever is driven by proinflammatory cytokines, notably interleukin-1 (IL-1) and IL-6, which act as endogenous pyrogens to induce the cytokine storm-like response.^[48]

Miscellaneous and Rare Causes

Drug fever represents a miscellaneous cause of fever of unknown origin (FUO), accounting for 1% to 5% of cases, particularly in hospitalized patients. It typically arises from hypersensitivity reactions to medications such as antibiotics (e.g., beta-lactams, sulfonamides), anticonvulsants (e.g., phenytoin), or antithyroid drugs, without an infectious or malignant etiology. The fever often manifests 7 to 10 days after drug initiation, may be accompanied by rash or eosinophilia, and resolves within 48 to 72 hours upon discontinuation of the offending agent.^[49]^[1]^[5] Factitious fever, also known as Munchausen syndrome in this context, is a rare behavioral cause of FUO, comprising less than 5% of cases and often suspected in healthcare workers or individuals with access to medical equipment. Patients may self-induce fever through thermometer manipulation, surreptitious injection of pyrogens, or other deceptive means, leading to prolonged evaluations and unnecessary interventions. Psychogenic fever, a related but distinct entity involving stress-induced temperature elevations without deliberate fabrication, is even rarer in FUO and typically presents with low-grade fevers resolving with psychological support. Diagnosis requires careful observation and exclusion of organic causes, with management focusing on psychiatric evaluation.^[15]^[23]^[50] Inherited autoinflammatory disorders, such as familial Mediterranean fever (FMF), constitute uncommon genetic causes of FUO, primarily affecting individuals of Mediterranean descent including Turks, Armenians, Jews, and Arabs. FMF results from mutations in the MEFV gene encoding pyrin, leading to recurrent episodes of fever, serositis (e.g., peritonitis, pleuritis), and arthritis lasting 1 to 3 days, with attacks triggered by stress or infections. Colchicine prophylaxis effectively prevents flares and amyloidosis complications in most patients.^[51]^[5]^[52] Metabolic disorders like hyperthyroidism can rarely present as FUO, with subacute thyroiditis being a notable example where granulomatous inflammation of the thyroid gland causes fever, often without prominent neck pain or goiter. In such cases, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate and transient thyrotoxicosis are clues, and the fever resolves with supportive care as the condition self-limits over weeks to months. Thyrotoxicosis from Graves' disease may also mimic FUO through increased metabolic rate, though it is exceedingly rare as an isolated presentation.^[5]^[53] Thermoregulatory abnormalities due to central nervous system (CNS) lesions represent another rare etiology, accounting for fewer than 1% of FUO cases. Hypothalamic dysfunction from tumors, strokes, trauma, or inflammatory processes can disrupt the body's temperature set point, leading to sustained fever without infection or inflammation elsewhere. Neuroimaging is essential for diagnosis, and treatment targets the underlying lesion, such as surgical resection or radiation for neoplasms. Recent reviews indicate that miscellaneous causes comprise 2% to 20% of cases, while 7% to 51% remain undiagnosed even after extensive investigation, with higher undiagnosed rates in developed countries due to advanced initial screening.^[54]^[15]

Diagnosis

History and Physical Examination

The evaluation of fever of unknown origin (FUO) begins with a meticulous history and physical examination, which serve as the cornerstone for identifying diagnostic clues and guiding subsequent investigations. These steps help narrow the broad differential diagnosis encompassing infections, malignancies, autoimmune diseases, and miscellaneous causes, often revealing patterns or exposures that point toward specific etiologies.^[1]^[55] A detailed history should first characterize the fever pattern, distinguishing between continuous, intermittent, relapsing, or periodic types, as certain patterns may suggest underlying conditions such as undulant fever in brucellosis or double quotidian fever in adult-onset Still's disease. Patients are encouraged to maintain a fever diary to document temperature readings, timing, and associated triggers, providing objective validation and aiding in pattern recognition. Associated symptoms, including unintentional weight loss of more than 10% of body weight over six months and drenching night sweats—collectively known as B symptoms—warrant particular attention, as they frequently indicate lymphoproliferative disorders like lymphoma or infectious processes such as tuberculosis.^[1]^[55]^[56] Further historical inquiry must explore potential exposures and risk factors, including recent travel to endemic areas for infections like malaria or typhoid, occupational or environmental contacts such as animal handling that could lead to zoonoses (e.g., Q fever from livestock), and high-risk behaviors like unprotected sex or intravenous drug use suggestive of HIV or hepatitis. A comprehensive review of medications is essential, as drug-induced fever accounts for a small but notable portion (typically 1-5%) of FUO cases.^[1]^[55]^[11] In many cases, the history provides key clues for diagnosis, underscoring its pivotal role.^[1]^[55]^[12] The physical examination requires repeated, thorough assessments to detect subtle or evolving signs. Key findings include lymphadenopathy, which may signal lymphoma, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), or sarcoidosis; hepatosplenomegaly, often seen in infections like Epstein-Barr virus or miliary tuberculosis; maculopapular or evanescent rashes suggestive of SLE or adult-onset Still's disease; and joint tenderness or swelling indicating rheumatic conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Additionally, clinicians should remain vigilant for factitious fever, particularly in healthcare workers, where self-induced hyperpyrexia through thermometer manipulation or surreptitious injection may mimic true FUO, often accompanied by relative bradycardia and inconsistent vital signs.^[1]^[55]

Laboratory Tests

Laboratory evaluation forms a cornerstone of the diagnostic approach to fever of unknown origin (FUO), providing initial clues to underlying infectious, inflammatory, or hematologic processes through blood-based and other non-invasive tests.^[1] A complete blood count (CBC) with differential is routinely performed, often revealing abnormalities such as anemia of chronic disease, leukocytosis suggesting bacterial infection, or leukopenia indicating viral or overwhelming sepsis.^[41] Eosinophilia on CBC may point to parasitic infections or drug reactions, while atypical lymphocytosis can suggest viral etiologies like Epstein-Barr virus (EBV).^[41] Inflammatory markers are nearly universally elevated in FUO, with erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) exceeding 100 mm/h in many cases and C-reactive protein (CRP) raised in over 90% of patients, supporting the presence of significant inflammation but lacking specificity for etiology.^[41] Liver function tests, including transaminases and alkaline phosphatase, are assessed as part of a comprehensive metabolic panel; elevations may indicate granulomatous hepatitis, lymphoma, or drug-induced injury.^[11] Urinalysis with microscopy and culture is essential to detect urinary tract infections or hematuria suggestive of renal involvement, though normal results do not exclude perinephric abscesses.^[11] Microbiologic cultures are critical early steps, including at least three sets of blood cultures (aerobic and anaerobic, 10 mL each from separate venipuncture sites) to maximize yield for bacteremia, alongside urine and sputum cultures if clinically indicated.^[1] Serologic testing targets common infections, such as those for EBV, cytomegalovirus (CMV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), with HIV antigen-antibody assays recommended routinely due to its association with FUO.^[11] For patients with risk factors or abnormal liver tests, hepatitis A, B, and E serologies are pursued.^[11] Advanced serologies and autoimmune panels guide further evaluation based on clinical suspicion; antinuclear antibody (ANA) and rheumatoid factor (RF) testing screen for systemic lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis, though their low specificity limits standalone diagnostic value.^[41] Serum ferritin levels above 1,000 ng/mL are highly suggestive of adult-onset Still's disease in the context of FUO, often exceeding five times the upper limit of normal and correlating with disease activity.^[11] Procalcitonin, increasingly incorporated in recent evaluations, helps differentiate bacterial from non-bacterial causes, with levels ≥0.5 ng/mL indicating possible severe infection.^[11] Overall, initial laboratory tests yield a definitive diagnosis in 10% to 20% of FUO cases, underscoring the need for integrated interpretation with history and imaging.^[1]

Imaging Modalities

Imaging modalities play a crucial role in the diagnostic evaluation of fever of unknown origin (FUO) by visualizing potential sources of infection, malignancy, or inflammation that may not be evident through history, physical examination, or laboratory tests. These non-invasive techniques help localize abnormalities such as abscesses, lymphadenopathy, or occult lesions, guiding further targeted investigations. Conventional radiographic methods like ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are typically employed early in the workup, while nuclear medicine imaging, particularly fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography (FDG-PET/CT), serves as a high-yield advanced tool for complex cases. According to the 2024 EANM consensus, [18F]FDG PET/CT is recommended early in the workup for adult FUO patients when available, with good diagnostic yield.^[57] Ultrasound is often used as an initial imaging modality in FUO due to its accessibility, lack of radiation, and ability to assess abdominal organs such as the liver and spleen for abscesses, infarcts, or enlargement. Transthoracic or transesophageal echocardiography, a specialized ultrasound application, is recommended to evaluate for endocarditis, particularly in patients with risk factors like intravenous drug use or prosthetic valves, as it can detect vegetations with moderate sensitivity. However, ultrasound has limitations in deep-seated or retroperitoneal pathology, often necessitating escalation to cross-sectional imaging. CT and MRI are valuable for detailed anatomical evaluation in FUO, particularly of the chest and abdomen to identify abscesses, enlarged lymph nodes, or masses suggestive of malignancy or infection. Contrast-enhanced CT of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis demonstrates sensitivities of approximately 50-70% for detecting such focal lesions, making it a standard second-line test after initial labs. MRI offers superior soft-tissue contrast for musculoskeletal or central nervous system involvement but is reserved for specific indications due to higher cost and longer scan times. Both modalities provide structural insights but may miss metabolically active processes without corresponding anatomical changes. FDG-PET/CT has emerged as the gold standard advanced imaging technique for FUO, particularly in detecting occult malignancies or infections by combining metabolic and anatomical data, with diagnostic yields of 25-50% in cases remaining undiagnosed after conventional workup, according to 2024 studies. It excels in identifying hypermetabolic foci in infections (sensitivity up to 85-97%) and malignancies (yield around 15-30% of final diagnoses), often altering management in up to 61% of patients by localizing biopsy sites or ruling out focal disease. A 2025 review in the European Journal of Internal Medicine highlights that FDG-PET/CT can reduce the rate of persistent undiagnosed FUO by facilitating early resolution or remission predictions, particularly when negative scans correlate with benign outcomes (relative risk 5.6 for spontaneous remission); however, routine use is discouraged in low-risk patients without diagnostic clues to optimize cost-effectiveness and minimize incidental findings. Overall, FDG-PET/CT is recommended as a second-line test when available, especially after negative conventional imaging.

Invasive Procedures

Invasive procedures are typically reserved for cases of fever of unknown origin (FUO) where non-invasive evaluations, including imaging, have failed to identify the etiology, and clinical suspicion directs targeted tissue sampling for histology, cytology, or culture.^[1] These interventions carry risks such as bleeding, infection, or perforation, with overall complication rates around 5%, necessitating a careful assessment of benefits versus potential harm.^[1] Bone marrow biopsy is particularly valuable in evaluating FUO associated with hematologic abnormalities like anemia or thrombocytopenia, aiding in the diagnosis of hematologic malignancies such as lymphoma or leukemia, as well as infections including tuberculosis or histoplasmosis.^[58] The diagnostic yield ranges from 10% to 15% in immunocompetent patients with prolonged fever, with higher rates when guided by abnormalities in complete blood count or imaging findings suggestive of marrow involvement.^[59] Performed under local anesthesia, it involves aspiration and trephine biopsy from the posterior iliac crest, providing material for microscopic examination, flow cytometry, and microbial cultures.^[60] Lymph node biopsy is indicated for accessible enlarged nodes, especially in the supraclavicular, posterior cervical, or epitrochlear regions, to detect lymphoma, metastatic carcinoma, or infectious granulomas in FUO patients with lymphadenopathy.^[41] This procedure offers a high diagnostic yield, particularly for mediastinal or retroperitoneal nodes accessed via thoracoscopy or laparoscopy, contributing to definitive diagnoses in up to 30% of selected cases.^[55] Temporal artery biopsy complements this in elderly patients over 60 years with FUO, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and symptoms suggestive of giant cell arteritis, serving as the gold standard for confirming vasculitis through histologic evidence of inflammation.^[6] Both procedures are often localized by prior imaging to maximize yield while minimizing invasiveness.^[1] Endoscopy and colonoscopy are employed to investigate gastrointestinal sources of FUO, such as inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., Crohn's disease) or occult malignancies, when symptoms like diarrhea, weight loss, or abnormal stool studies raise suspicion.^[1] These allow direct visualization, biopsy, and sampling for pathogens or dysplasia, with moderate diagnostic yields in targeted FUO cohorts, particularly for ulcerative or infectious colitis.^[61] Risks include sedation-related issues or bowel perforation, occurring in less than 1% of cases, underscoring their role after non-invasive gastrointestinal imaging.^[1]

Treatment

Supportive Care

Supportive care in fever of unknown origin (FUO) focuses on alleviating symptoms, preventing complications, and supporting the patient during the diagnostic evaluation process, as many cases resolve without a specific etiology being identified.^[11] Up to 75% of FUO cases may resolve spontaneously, emphasizing the importance of non-invasive management to avoid interfering with diagnostic patterns.^[3] Antipyretic medications, such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen, are commonly used to provide comfort by reducing fever-related discomfort, but they should be administered judiciously to avoid masking the fever pattern that aids in diagnosis.^[1] Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like naproxen can offer symptomatic relief in stable patients, though prolonged use requires monitoring for potential side effects.^[1] Maintaining adequate hydration and nutrition is essential, particularly in prolonged FUO, to counteract risks of dehydration from fever-induced insensible losses and reduced oral intake.^[62] Patients are advised to increase fluid intake and consume balanced meals, with intravenous hydration considered if oral intake is insufficient or complications arise.^[62] Close monitoring is a cornerstone of supportive care, including continuation of a fever diary where patients record temperature, timing, and associated symptoms to assist clinicians in identifying patterns.^[6] Hospitalization is recommended for unstable patients exhibiting signs of hemodynamic instability, severe dehydration, or worsening symptoms, allowing for intensive observation and prompt intervention if needed.^[1] Routine empirical antibiotics are not advised in non-immunocompromised, stable patients, as they may obscure the underlying cause and are unnecessary given the potential for self-resolution.^[11]

Targeted Therapy

Once the underlying etiology of fever of unknown origin (FUO) is identified, treatment is directed specifically at that cause, which leads to resolution of the fever in the majority of cases.^[1] Empiric antimicrobial therapy is generally not recommended for classic FUO unless the patient is at high risk, such as those with neutropenia or immunosuppression, where broad-spectrum agents may be initiated pending further evaluation.^[11]^[1] For infectious causes, which account for a significant proportion of FUO cases, targeted antimicrobial therapy is employed based on the identified pathogen. Tuberculosis, a common infectious etiology in FUO, is treated with a standard four-drug regimen including rifampin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol for the initial phase, followed by isoniazid and rifampin for continuation, typically lasting 6 to 9 months. Viral infections, such as cytomegalovirus in immunocompromised patients, require specific antivirals like ganciclovir.^[11] Abscesses or endocarditis are managed with prolonged courses of antibiotics tailored to culture results, such as beta-lactams combined with aminoglycosides.^[21] In cases of malignancy-associated FUO, such as lymphoma or leukemia, treatment focuses on oncologic interventions to address the underlying neoplasm. For non-Hodgkin lymphoma, a frequent cause, rituximab combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone (R-CHOP) is a standard chemotherapeutic regimen that often resolves the fever as the tumor burden decreases.^[11] Surgical resection may be indicated for localized tumors, while radiation is used adjunctively in certain solid malignancies.^[1] Autoimmune and rheumatic diseases contributing to FUO are managed with immunosuppressive agents to control inflammation. Corticosteroids, such as prednisone, are first-line for conditions like giant cell arteritis or vasculitis, often leading to rapid defervescence.^[1] For adult-onset Still's disease, biologic therapies targeting interleukin-1, including anakinra, have shown high efficacy in refractory cases, achieving remission in systemic symptoms like fever and rash.^[63] Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), such as methotrexate, are used for maintenance in chronic inflammatory arthritides.^[11] Specific treatment of the identified cause results in fever resolution in the majority of diagnosed FUO cases, though undiagnosed instances may resolve spontaneously in up to 75% without intervention.^[64]

Prognosis

Overall Outcomes

In patients with fever of unknown origin (FUO), approximately 50% to 75% receive a definitive diagnosis through systematic evaluation, often within the initial three months of investigation. Recent prospective studies (e.g., 2023) report diagnosis rates up to 87% and in-hospital mortality as low as 1.9%, indicating improved outcomes with contemporary diagnostics.^[5]^[11]^[65] Among cases that remain undiagnosed after extensive workup, which comprise 25% to 50% of FUO presentations, most resolve spontaneously, with reported rates ranging from 20% to 75% across studies, often attributed to self-limited viral infections or transient inflammatory processes.^[1]^[15] The overall mortality rate for FUO is estimated at 5% to 10%, with higher rates observed when malignancy is the underlying cause, where it can exceed 20% due to delayed diagnosis and disease progression.^[15]^[66] Recent advancements in imaging, such as positron emission tomography (PET), have contributed to improved outcomes by enhancing diagnostic yield, with studies reporting mortality rates below 5% in cases where a cause is identified and treated promptly.^[67] In pediatric FUO, outcomes are generally favorable, with approximately 75% of cases linked to benign infectious or inflammatory etiologies that resolve without long-term sequelae.^[68] Long-term survival is high for most FUO patients, exceeding 90%, though a subset of unresolved cases may experience persistent symptoms such as chronic fatigue, impacting quality of life for months to years post-episode.^[64]^[11]

Influencing Factors

Several factors influence the prognosis of fever of unknown origin (FUO), with patient age playing a significant role. Elderly patients, particularly those over 65 years, experience poorer outcomes due to altered immune responses, blunted fever mechanisms, and higher rates of serious underlying infections or noninfectious causes such as temporal arteritis.^[1]^[69] In contrast, younger patients, including children, generally have more favorable prognoses, especially when no specific cause is identified, as the fever often resolves spontaneously without long-term complications.^[1] The underlying etiology is a critical determinant of outcome. Malignancies account for 7% to 35% of FUO cases (e.g., 20–30% in some reviews, 11% in a 2014 cohort study) and are associated with high mortality, contributing to approximately 60% of FUO-related deaths in that study despite their proportion; non-Hodgkin lymphoma is particularly lethal in this context.^[66]^[11] Infections, the most common cause overall (20-40% of cases), carry a more favorable prognosis, with most resolving through targeted antimicrobial therapy, though exact cure rates vary by pathogen and host factors.^[11] Autoimmune diseases also respond well to immunosuppression, leading to remission in the majority of cases.^[1] In HIV-associated FUO, prognosis worsens with severe immunosuppression (CD4 count <200 cells/μL), increasing the risk of opportunistic infections, whereas higher CD4 counts correlate with better resolution rates.^[70] Diagnostic timing and modality further modulate prognosis. Delayed diagnosis beyond initial evaluation periods exacerbates outcomes by allowing disease progression, particularly in infectious or malignant etiologies.^[11] Early use of 18F-FDG PET/CT imaging improves detection rates (up to 47-75% contributory) and predicts favorable outcomes, especially when negative results exclude focal pathology.^[42]^[71] Comorbidities like diabetes mellitus heighten infection susceptibility and complicate FUO management, leading to increased hospitalization and mortality risks compared to non-diabetic patients.^[72]

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