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Israeli Sign Language

Israeli Sign Language (ISL), known in Hebrew as Sfat ha-simanim ha-yisra'elit or Shassi, is the predominant sign language employed by the Deaf community in Israel, serving 10,000 to 20,000 users as of 2025 as the primary means of communication among deaf individuals.^[1]^[2]^[3] ISL functions as a full-fledged natural language with its own grammar, vocabulary, and syntax, distinct from spoken Hebrew despite some lexical borrowings, and it utilizes visual-spatial modalities including handshapes, movements, locations, and facial expressions to convey meaning.^[4] Despite its widespread use in deaf education, social organizations, and media interpreting services, ISL lacks official legal recognition or governmental financial support in Israel.^[5] The origins of ISL trace back to the early 20th century in Ottoman Palestine, where isolated pockets of deaf individuals used rudimentary home signs or regional variants influenced by local Jewish and Arabic communities, but the language's structured development began in 1932 with the founding of the Jewish School for Deaf Mutes in Jerusalem.^[6] This institution brought together deaf children from diverse backgrounds—including native Palestinians and immigrants from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East—fostering the convergence of various sign systems into a unified language over subsequent generations.^[7] Immigration waves in the 1930s and 1940s, particularly from German-speaking regions, introduced elements from German Sign Language (with about 28% lexical overlap), alongside influences from Algerian Jewish Sign Language and other migrant varieties, contributing to ISL's mixed creole-like evolution without direct descent from any single parent language.^[4] By the 1940s, the establishment of the Israeli Deaf Association in 1944 further solidified community cohesion, accelerating ISL's grammatical maturation across four generations of signers.^[7] Linguistically, ISL exhibits productive morphology, including classifiers for describing shapes and movements, and a flexible word order that favors subject-object-verb (SOV) structures in complex sentences while accommodating subject-verb-object (SVO) influenced by Hebrew.^[4] Verb agreement systems, which mark spatial references to subjects and objects, emerged gradually by the third generation, demonstrating the language's capacity for rapid innovation in a young linguistic ecology.^[7] Research on ISL has been pivotal in sign language linguistics since the 1970s, with ongoing corpus projects documenting its lexicon and syntax, highlighting its role as a model for studying language emergence and universals in visual-gestural systems.^[3]

Overview

Description and Status

Israeli Sign Language (ISL), known in Hebrew as Shassi (שפת הסימנים הישראלית), is the primary sign language of Israel's Deaf community. It functions as an independent visual-gestural language, distinct from spoken Hebrew or Arabic, with its own grammatical structure and lexicon developed through intergenerational transmission. ISL originated from a contact pidgin formed by the mixing of various sign languages brought by Jewish immigrants to Palestine in the early 20th century, which creolized into a fully fledged language over subsequent generations.^[3] As a visual-spatial language, ISL relies on the modality of sight and gesture to convey meaning, utilizing key parameters such as handshapes, movements, locations in signing space, palm orientations, and non-manual features including facial expressions, head tilts, and eye gaze. These elements combine to form signs that can express complex ideas, with handshapes often serving as classifiers to depict object shapes, sizes, or movements within spatial contexts. The language's structure emphasizes simultaneity, allowing multiple linguistic features to occur concurrently, which distinguishes it from linear spoken languages.^[3]^[8] In 2020, the Israeli government decided to recognize ISL by establishing a dedicated unit at the Academy of the Hebrew Language in 2022 to support its preservation, documentation, and development. This unit focuses on standardizing vocabulary, grammar, and orthography, as well as creating resources like dictionaries to promote accessibility and integration for Deaf individuals. As of 2025, the unit is working on standardizing vocabulary and developing resources, including a comprehensive online bilingual dictionary. The recognition builds on earlier legal mandates, such as the 1998 Equal Rights for Persons with Disabilities Law, which requires ISL interpretation in public services, education, and media.^[9]^[1]

Number of Users

Israeli Sign Language (ISL) is estimated to have between 10,000 and 20,000 users as of 2025, encompassing deaf native signers, hearing family members of deaf individuals, professional interpreters, and educators involved in deaf communities.^[1] This figure includes both fluent native users, who acquire ISL from birth through deaf parents or deaf signing environments, and non-native users who learn it later in life, often through formal education or community immersion; native signers, who acquire ISL from deaf parents, represent a small subset of the Deaf community.^[3]^[10] The language is predominantly used by Israel's population with hearing impairments, estimated at around 58,000 individuals as of 2023, though not all deaf people in the country are fluent ISL users, as some employ regional variants or other sign languages influenced by immigrant backgrounds.^[10]^[11] Usage is higher among older generations, who were more likely to acquire ISL through early community interactions before widespread adoption of oralist educational approaches, while younger deaf individuals often learn it as a second language after initial exposure to spoken Hebrew or lip-reading methods.^[6] Declining native acquisition of ISL stems from historical oralist influences in deaf education, which prioritized spoken language over signing and reduced intergenerational transmission within families.^[12] Several factors have shaped the number of ISL users over time, including the influx of deaf refugees from Europe following World War II, whose immigration significantly expanded the signing community and contributed diverse lexical influences to the emerging language.^[6] Recent trends indicate stabilization in overall usage, supported by official recognition and increased accessibility efforts, but the language remains vulnerable to shifts in isolated communities, such as the deaf population in Kufr Qassem, where Kufr Qassem Sign Language (KQSL) is undergoing rapid mergence with ISL, potentially leading to loss of unique linguistic features.^[5] In a national population of approximately 9.8 million as of 2025, ISL serves a small but vital minority, underscoring its role in preserving cultural identity and communication for the Deaf community amid broader societal integration challenges.^[13]

History

Origins and Early Development

The establishment of the first formal school for Deaf children in Mandate Palestine marked a pivotal moment in the origins of Israeli Sign Language (ISL). In November 1932, the Jewish School for Deaf Mutes opened in Jerusalem, funded by a bequest from a Jewish businessman from Shanghai to the Alliance Israélite Universelle, with the explicit request to create an educational institution for Deaf children.^[6]^[14] The school was led by educators, including Moshe Bamberger, who had trained at the Jewish School for the Deaf in Berlin, introducing elements of German Sign Language (DGS) as the primary signing system.^[3] This influence is evident today, with approximately 28% of ISL signs identical to DGS and 10% similar, reflecting the foundational role of German-educated teachers in shaping early ISL vocabulary and structure.^[3] In its nascent form during the 1930s, ISL emerged as a pidgin-like system, blending DGS with local gestures used by indigenous Deaf individuals in Palestine and signs imported from the home languages of Jewish immigrants, such as Yiddish-influenced gestures and elements from Polish Sign Language brought by Eastern European arrivals.^[6]^[3] Prior to the school's founding, isolated Deaf groups existed in areas like Jerusalem and Safed, relying on ad hoc home signs and gestures, but the institution provided the first structured environment for intergenerational transmission among children.^[3] The influx of Deaf Jewish refugees from Europe in the 1930s, fleeing rising antisemitism, further diversified this emerging lexicon, as immigrants contributed signs from various European sign languages amid the broader wave of Jewish migration to Palestine.^[3]^[15] Early community formation gained public visibility through the 1936 Purim parade in Tel Aviv, a foundational event where Deaf groups from Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, and Haifa gathered, fostering interactions that accelerated the spread of shared signing practices.^[16] During World War II, an additional surge of Deaf Jewish refugees from Europe arrived in Palestine despite British immigration restrictions, intensifying communal sign use within schools and informal networks.^[3] By the 1940s, as additional schools opened in Tel Aviv and Haifa, ISL transitioned from fragmented gestures to a basic shared system, primarily developed through peer interactions among schoolchildren who regularized and expanded the pidgin into a more cohesive form of communication.^[17]^[15]

Evolution and Influences

Israeli Sign Language (ISL) underwent a rapid creolization process following its pidgin-like origins in the 1930s, evolving into a fully structured language through intergenerational transmission within the growing deaf community. By the 1960s, second- and third-generation signers had developed consistent grammatical features, including verb agreement and spatial modulation, marking the shift from rudimentary signing systems to complex linguistic structures. This transformation occurred within approximately 30–50 years, a phenomenon extensively studied by researchers at the University of Haifa's Sign Language Research Lab, who documented how repeated exposure among deaf children accelerated the emergence of systematic grammar.^[18] The primary linguistic influences on ISL stemmed from German Sign Language (DGS), introduced by European Jewish immigrants and educators in the early 20th century, contributing significantly to handshapes and syntactic patterns, with studies identifying 28% identical signs and 10% similar ones between the two languages. Secondary influences included American Sign Language (ASL), incorporated through educational exchanges and international collaborations in the 1960s and 1970s that exposed Israeli deaf educators and students to ASL conventions. In mixed communities, ISL also incorporated borrowings from local Arabic sign languages and Bedouin signing varieties, particularly in lexicon related to daily life and cultural practices.^[3]^[6] Key milestones in ISL's evolution included the 1944 founding of the Israel Association of the Deaf, which formalized social networks among deaf individuals and promoted unified signing practices across regions. The 1958 completion of the association's Tel Aviv headquarters, known as the Helen Keller House, further facilitated national standardization by serving as a hub for community gatherings and sign language dissemination. These developments helped consolidate ISL as a shared national language amid Israel's diverse immigrant deaf population.^[19]^[20] Dialectal variations emerged alongside ISL, notably in isolated communities where unique sign languages developed but later reflected ISL's influence. Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language (ABSL), arising in the 1940s within a high-incidence deaf Bedouin village in southern Israel, initially evolved independently but incorporated ISL elements through schooling and contact, demonstrating bidirectional linguistic exchange. Similarly, Kufr Qassem Sign Language (KQSL), which originated in the 1930s among a concentrated deaf population in central Israel, maintains distinct features but shows increasing ISL dominance among younger bilingual signers, highlighting ISL's role in broader regional standardization.^[21]^[22]

Official Recognition

In November 2020, the Israeli government adopted Resolution No. 591, marking a pivotal step in the formal acknowledgment of Israeli Sign Language (ISL) by directing the establishment of a dedicated unit at the Academy of the Hebrew Language, which was created in 2022. This unit is responsible for documenting, preserving, and developing ISL, including the creation of a comprehensive bilingual (ISL-Hebrew) dictionary and efforts toward standardization. As of 2025, the unit continues to develop new signs and advance the dictionary project.^[23]^[24]^[1] While this decision enhances institutional support, ISL does not yet hold full official language status on par with Hebrew or Arabic.^[1] Following the 2020 resolution, impacts have included expanded public funding for accessibility services, such as the 2022 approval of a 2 billion shekel (approximately $595 million) disabilities integration plan that allocates resources for sign language translation and stenographic services in public sectors like healthcare and education.^[25] Additionally, initiatives from 2023 to 2025, including the Tel Aviv-based startup Sign Now, have introduced AI-assisted on-demand video interpretation platforms to bridge communication gaps for Deaf users in real-time settings.^[26]^[27] This recognition aligns with Israel's obligations under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), ratified in 2012, which emphasizes the promotion of sign languages as part of cultural and linguistic rights for Deaf individuals (Articles 2, 21, 24, and 30).^[28] Internationally, it parallels the status of American Sign Language (ASL) in the United States, which lacks federal official designation but receives state-level recognition and support in over 40 states for educational and public use.^[29] However, challenges persist, including debates over achieving full legal parity for ISL in legislation and administration. Recent 2024–2025 research also underscores vulnerabilities in emerging dialects, such as Kafr Qasem Sign Language (KQSL), a village sign language at risk of linguistic merger with dominant ISL due to community integration and language shift among younger generations.^[30]^[31]

Linguistic Structure

Phonology and Prosody

Israeli Sign Language (ISL) phonology is structured around five core parameters that define the form of individual signs: handshape, location, movement, orientation, and nonmanual features.^[32] Handshape refers to the configuration of the hand or hands, with ISL employing over 30 distinct handshapes that can distinguish minimal pairs, such as DANGEROUS (using a bent-finger handshape) from INTERESTING (using an extended-finger handshape).^[32] Location specifies the spatial position where the sign is articulated, typically in neutral signing space in front of the signer or on specific body parts like the face or chest, with contrasts like SCOLD (head location) versus SEND (torso location).^[32] Movement involves the path or internal motion of the hand(s), serving as the dynamic core of most signs and creating distinctions, for example, in path-based versus hand-internal changes.^[33] Orientation describes the direction of the palm or fingers relative to the body, while nonmanual features include facial expressions, eye gaze, and head tilts that can modify or accompany manual signs.^[32] ISL signs generally follow a monosyllabic structure, where movement functions as the syllable nucleus, analogous to vowels in spoken languages, and holds or static positions act as onsets or codas.^[33] This results in most lexical signs being single syllables, though reduplication can create multisyllabic forms for grammatical purposes.^[33] Phonological constraints govern parameter combinations, particularly in two-handed signs, where symmetry rules often require matching handshapes and orientations between hands to maintain well-formedness, as seen in balanced signs like those depicting symmetrical objects.^[34] Prosody in ISL organizes signs into hierarchical units, including phonological phrases and intonational phrases, which structure discourse rhythm and intonation.^[35] Phonological phrases are bounded by holds, pauses, or slight body leans, grouping signs into rhythmic units similar to those in spoken languages.^[35] Intonational phrases, marking larger discourse boundaries, are delimited by nonmanual markers such as brow raises, head nods, or tilts, which also signal pragmatic functions like yes/no questions (via sustained brow raise) and topic marking (via head tilt or forward lean).^[35]^[36] These prosodic elements enhance cohesion and convey sentence types without relying solely on manual lexicon.^[37] The development of ISL's prosody reflects its creolization process; early pidgin varieties in the 1920s-1940s, formed among diverse deaf immigrants, exhibited limited prosodic complexity with few boundary markers, but by the 1970s, the language had stabilized as a creole with robust prosodic structures akin to those in established spoken languages.

Grammar and Syntax

Israeli Sign Language (ISL) exhibits a flexible basic word order, often structured around a topic-comment framework rather than a rigid subject-verb-object (SVO) or subject-object-verb (SOV) sequence. In this structure, the topic—frequently the object or a locative element—is introduced first to set the spatial or referential context, followed by the comment, which includes the verb and additional information.^[38] This flexibility is influenced by the spatial nature of verbs, allowing signers to adjust order for emphasis or clarity while maintaining coherence through established referents in signing space.^[39] Verb morphology in ISL is highly productive, particularly through spatial modifications that encode grammatical relations. Agreement is realized via directionality, where the path of the verb's movement is inflected from the subject's locus to the object's locus in space, marking subject-object relations on verbs like GIVE or SHOW.^[40] Aspectual distinctions are conveyed through techniques such as reduplication, which indicates iterative or habitual actions by repeating the verb sign multiple times with varying speed or extent.^[4] Additionally, classifiers—handshape representations of object categories—integrate with movement predicates to depict handling or path, enabling descriptions of manner and spatial relations in complex scenes. Complex constructions in ISL demonstrate ongoing grammatical development, particularly in subordinate structures. Relative clauses are marked primarily through non-manual features, including squinted eyes and forward head movement, which scope over the clause to indicate subordination; these markers have grammaticalized from prosodic cues associated with topics.^[41] Role shift, involving shifts in body posture and gaze to enact perspectives, further supports relative clause integration by distinguishing embedded narratives from main clauses.^[41] Studies tracking generational changes reveal this emergence, with non-manual marking becoming more consistent in younger signers compared to older ones.^[41] In the related Kafr Qasem Sign Language (KQSL), a village sign language in contact with ISL, embedding appears in early forms through prosodic boundaries and reduced predicates, illustrating rapid syntactic evolution toward structures akin to those in mature ISL.^[22] Question formation in ISL relies on a combination of manual and non-manual elements for clarity. Yes/no questions are typically signaled by raised eyebrows, open eyes, and a forward tilt of the head or shoulders, overlaying the declarative word order without requiring inversion.^[42] Wh-questions employ lowered or furrowed brows, a frown, and forward tilt, with interrogative signs (e.g., for who, what, where) most commonly positioned at sentence end, though initial placement occurs for emphasis.^[42] These non-manuals scope over the questioned clause, excluding any initial topic, to convey interrogative intent.^[42]

Lexicon and Vocabulary

The lexicon of Israeli Sign Language (ISL) consists of an estimated several thousand signs, with a master list of 4,233 documented lexical items serving as a foundational reference for non-compound signs.^[43] Approximately 28% of ISL signs are identical to those in German Sign Language, reflecting historical influences, while many others are native creations that are iconic, visually resembling their referents through handshape, movement, or spatial depiction.^[3] Native signs often draw on spatial and gestural elements unique to sign languages, comprising the core of everyday vocabulary, whereas borrowed signs account for a significant portion through adaptation from other languages. Borrowings include signs from American Sign Language, illustrating lexical integration from international deaf contacts.^[3] ISL lexical categories include nouns, verbs, and adjectives, each distinguished by morphological and syntactic behaviors rather than strict phonological criteria. Nouns lack articles and form plurals through listing or repetition in space, such as repeating the sign for "book" in multiple locations to indicate multiple items.^[44] Verbs are inflected for person and spatial agreement, modifying path or orientation to indicate subject-object relations, as in the sign for "give" directed toward a specific location. Adjectives typically follow nouns in phrases and can be intensified through movement repetition or elongation. Compounding is a productive process for expanding the lexicon, often involving sequential combination of signs with reduction in movement; examples include "heart + offer" for "volunteer" and "house + eat" for "restaurant," where the resulting form becomes lexicalized.^[44] Borrowings in ISL primarily occur via fingerspelling using the Hebrew alphabet for proper names, acronyms, and technical terms lacking established signs, such as spelling "COVID" as an initialism. Mouth movements from Hebrew often accompany signs for clarification, especially in code-mixing contexts, while partial borrowings like initial-letter handshapes adapt spoken words into signs. Neologisms are actively developed by the Israeli Sign Language Academy, established in 2020, which focuses on creating standardized signs for emerging concepts.^[9] These efforts ensure lexical adaptation to modern needs, including technology and health terminology. Documentation of the ISL lexicon is advanced through resources like the ISL-LEX v.1 database, released in 2022, which provides 961 video entries of non-compound signs, each with frequency ratings from native signers, iconicity assessments, and phonological annotations to facilitate research and learning. Videos are sourced from established dictionaries and controlled recordings, enabling visualization of sign production. Dialectal variations appear in related signing communities, such as Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language (ABSL), a village sign language with unique lexical items for kinship and daily life due to its isolated emergence, though ABSL signers increasingly incorporate ISL elements.^[43]

Community and Usage

The Israeli Deaf Community

The Israeli Deaf community comprises an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 individuals who use Israeli Sign Language (ISL), including deaf people, their family members, educators, and interpreters.^[1] This population reflects Israel's ethnic diversity, encompassing primarily Jewish and Arab members, with the latter including Muslim, Christian, and Druze subgroups who integrate into the broader ISL-using network. Major urban centers such as Tel Aviv and Jerusalem serve as key hubs, hosting organizations, social gatherings, and cultural events that foster community cohesion.^[1]^[45]^[46] The Israel Association of the Deaf (ADI), founded in 1944, is the primary national organization supporting the community, with over 10,000 members across the country. ADI operates regional Deaf clubs that organize social events, advocacy initiatives, and welfare programs to promote accessibility and rights for deaf individuals. These clubs play a vital role in building social connections and addressing daily challenges faced by deaf Israelis.^[47]^[48] Internal dynamics within the community are shaped by historical immigrant waves, particularly post-World War II Jewish migrations from Europe and other regions, which contributed to the formation of ISL and created strong kinship networks among deaf families and extended relations. However, intergenerational transmission of ISL faces significant hurdles, as approximately 90% of deaf children in Israel are born to hearing parents, often leading to delayed language exposure and reliance on community networks for acquisition.^[6]^[49] A notable sub-community is the Al-Sayyid Bedouin group in the Negev desert, where around 150 deaf individuals and many hearing relatives use Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language (ABSL), a village sign language that emerged in the early 20th century due to high rates of hereditary deafness. This isolated tribe, numbering approximately 3,500–4,000 total members, is experiencing language shift as younger generations increasingly adopt ISL through external influences like education and employment, threatening ABSL's vitality.^[1]^[50] Israeli Sign Language (ISL) serves as a cornerstone of identity and pride within Israel's Deaf community, fostering a sense of belonging and cultural affirmation through artistic and communal expressions. Annual events such as the Na Laga'at Festival for Groundbreaking Arts, including its 2025 edition featuring performances by deaf, blind, and deafblind artists, highlight ISL's role in celebrating Deaf creativity, blending signing with music and theater to bridge sensory differences and promote inclusivity.^[51] Since the early 2000s, the Nalaga'at Center in Jaffa has been pivotal, hosting the world's first professional deaf-blind theater ensemble, where actors use ISL alongside touch and mime in productions like "Not by Bread Alone," enabling Deaf individuals to express narratives of resilience and integration. These initiatives not only reinforce Deaf pride but also challenge societal perceptions by showcasing ISL as a vibrant medium for cultural dialogue.^[52]^[53] In daily life, ISL facilitates communication across diverse settings, including families, workplaces, and religious contexts, while adapting to Israel's multicultural fabric. Within Deaf families and community gatherings, ISL is the primary mode of interaction, strengthening intergenerational bonds and social networks. In professional environments, it supports inclusion for the estimated 10,000–20,000 ISL users, many of whom are Deaf or hard-of-hearing individuals employed in various sectors. Religious adaptations, such as occasional sign language interpretations in synagogues, enable participation in Jewish rituals, though availability remains inconsistent. Notably, in multicultural Israel, Arab Deaf communities employ ISL as their main sign language, often combining it with Arabic mouthing to navigate linguistic diversity.^[3]^[1]^[54] Advancements like the 2022 establishment of the Department of Israeli Sign Language at the Academy of the Hebrew Language and the 2021 election of Shirly Pinto as Israel's first deaf Knesset member have further elevated ISL's visibility, enhancing its use in public discourse and education.^[1]^[55] ISL's cultural expressions enrich storytelling and poetry through its unique spatial mapping, where signers use the signing space to depict relationships, movements, and perspectives, creating immersive narratives that embody Deaf experiences. This visual-spatial modality allows for poetic devices like iconicity and metaphor, as explored in ISL literature, distinguishing it from spoken Hebrew forms. Furthermore, ISL has permeated hearing Israeli culture, influencing everyday gestures in Hebrew communication—such as emphatic hand movements shared between Deaf signers and hearing gesturers—evident in studies of embodied expressions like those varying by sexual orientation, where gay Deaf signers and hearing gesturers employ similar body cues.^[4]^[56] Despite these contributions, ISL faces ongoing challenges rooted in historical stigma from oralist policies, which prioritized spoken Hebrew over signing and marginalized Deaf voices in education and society. This legacy persists in exclusionary practices, contributing to identity struggles and limited recognition. Recent research, including 2024 analyses of signing variations, underscores how such stigma intersects with personal embodiments, like differences in ISL styles between gay and straight signers, highlighting the need for greater societal acceptance.^[12]^[57]^[56]

Education and Policy

Sign Language in Education

The education of Deaf children in Israel initially adhered to a strict oralist paradigm, prioritizing spoken Hebrew through lip-reading and speech training while suppressing sign language use. The pioneering Jewish School for Deaf Mutes, founded in 1932 in Jerusalem under the influence of German-Jewish educators from Berlin, exemplified this approach, aiming to assimilate Deaf students into hearing society by forbidding gestures and focusing on verbal skills. This method persisted through the mid-20th century, resulting in limited exposure to Israeli Sign Language (ISL) and contributing to challenges in language development and literacy among Deaf learners.^[3]^[6] A gradual shift occurred in the latter half of the 20th century toward total communication, integrating oral methods with signed Hebrew to enhance comprehension and expression in classrooms. Linguistic research beginning in the 1970s and 1980s, notably at the University of Haifa, underscored ISL's status as a fully developed language, advocating for its incorporation to support cognitive and social growth. By the 1990s, bilingual education models—emphasizing ISL as the primary language of instruction alongside written and spoken Hebrew—gained prominence, spurred by a 1991 Supreme Court ruling requiring ISL interpreters in mainstream settings. This transition was implemented in specialized Deaf schools and select high schools, such as those in Yahud and Yagur, fostering dual-language proficiency and cultural identity.^[58]^[59] Today, several specialized schools across Israel serve Deaf students through ISL immersion programs, promoting early language acquisition and academic engagement. University-based teacher training initiatives, including ISL certification courses, equip educators to deliver bilingual curricula, though the rise of cochlear implants since the 2000s poses ongoing challenges by favoring oral rehabilitation and potentially hindering ISL development in young children. Outcomes have improved markedly, with bilingual approaches correlating to higher literacy and matriculation rates—for instance, the proportion of Deaf individuals completing high school rose from 7% in 1992 to 32.7% by 2003—enabling greater integration into mainstream education with interpreter support.^[58]^[12]

Legal and Policy Framework

The Equal Rights for Persons with Disabilities Law of 1998 serves as the foundational legislation protecting the rights of deaf individuals in Israel, mandating accessibility accommodations including sign language interpreters and adaptive devices such as subtitling and real-time captioning for hearing-impaired persons across public services.^[60] This law requires public entities, including courts, hospitals, and emergency services, to provide auxiliary means like Israeli Sign Language (ISL) interpretation to ensure equal participation, with full implementation for emergency accessibility targeted by 2018.^[60] Subsequent regulations under the law have extended these provisions to police interrogations and court testimonies, promoting ISL use in legal proceedings.^[61] Building on this framework, policy advancements since 2020 have enhanced ISL integration in public life, including the establishment of a dedicated Department of Israeli Sign Language by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in 2022 to standardize and codify the language, thereby increasing its legitimacy without granting full official status.^[1] The government subsidizes communication aids through the Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Services, providing up to 45 hours of ISL interpretation annually per eligible deaf or hard-of-hearing individual as of 2002, alongside tax refunds for related devices; these subsidies also support ISL in media broadcasts and educational settings.^[62] A national system coordinates certified interpreters for public services, though exact certification numbers remain tied to advocacy-driven training programs.^[63] Israel's alignment with international standards is evident in its 2012 ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), which reinforces obligations under Articles 9 (accessibility) and 21 (access to information) to promote sign language use in all domains.^[64] The Israel Association of the Deaf has played a key role in advocacy, pushing for expanded CRPD implementation, including better ISL access in healthcare and justice systems. Despite these measures, enforcement gaps persist, particularly in rural and southern areas where communication barriers during emergencies compromise safety, as highlighted in studies of southern Israel communities.^[63] Ongoing advocacy has focused on mandating ISL interpreters in emergency alerts and services to address these disparities.

Resources and Representation

Manual Alphabet and Notation

The manual alphabet of Israeli Sign Language (ISL) consists of a one-handed fingerspelling system in which each letter of the Hebrew alphabet is represented by a distinct handshape. This system accommodates the 22 consonants and 5 vowels of Hebrew, facilitating the spelling of proper names, foreign loanwords, and terms without established lexical signs, such as rendering "ISRAEL" as the sequence I-S-R-A-E-L. Fingerspelling in ISL draws from the written form of Hebrew, reflecting the linguistic environment of the Deaf community, and serves as a borrowing mechanism to incorporate elements from the surrounding spoken language.^[3]^[17]^[38] In practice, fingerspelling is employed to create initialized signs, where the handshape corresponding to the initial letter of a Hebrew word modifies an existing sign for semantic specificity; for instance, an H-handshape may denote concepts related to "Hebrew." Within mixed communities influenced by Arabic-speaking groups, such as Bedouin villages, two-handed fingerspelling variants occasionally appear, blending ISL practices with local gestural traditions, though one-handed forms predominate in mainstream ISL usage. These adaptations highlight the dynamic interplay between ISL and the sociolinguistic context of Israel's diverse Deaf population.^[17]^[65] For notation, ISL employs several systems to transcribe signs for research and documentation. The Eshkol-Wachmann Movement Notation System, developed in Israel, has been utilized in early lexicographic works, such as the 1980s dictionary A New Dictionary of Sign Language, to systematically record sign movements through geometric and vector-based symbols. The Hamburg Notation System (HamNoSys), a phonetic transcription tool applicable to all sign languages, supports detailed linguistic analysis of ISL, including handshape inventories and phonological structures, as seen in studies examining the distribution of handshapes in the ISL lexicon. SignWriting, a visual ideographic system, offers a graphical representation of signs but has seen limited adoption in Israel, where video-based documentation is favored for its accessibility and fidelity to the dynamic, spatial aspects of signing.^[66]^[67]

Media, Technology, and Research

Media representation of Israeli Sign Language (ISL) has grown since the 1990s, with television broadcasts incorporating sign language interpreters and Hebrew subtitles to enhance accessibility for deaf viewers.^[1] A prominent example is the Na Laga'at Center in Tel Aviv-Jaffa, established in 2007, which features a professional theater troupe of deaf, blind, and deaf-blind actors performing in ISL, blending sign language, mime, touch, and music to engage diverse audiences.^[52] In 2023, the Israeli startup CODA introduced AI-generated avatars capable of translating spoken Hebrew into real-time ISL, enabling instantaneous sign language output for broadcasts and videos to improve communication for the deaf community.^[68] Technological advancements supporting ISL include the Corpus of Israeli Sign Language project, a collaborative effort from 2020 to 2024 led by researchers at Bar-Ilan University and international partners, which collected video data from 120 deaf ISL signers across four regions in Israel, resulting in over 360 hours of spontaneous and elicited signing available as an open-access digital resource for linguistic analysis. In 2024, the Signsability app was introduced, utilizing advanced recognition systems to interpret dynamic ISL gestures for improved communication.^[69]^[70] Additionally, motion-capture technology, such as Kinect-based systems, has been applied in recent studies; for instance, a 2025 investigation used it to analyze kinematic features in ISL signs related to sexuality, comparing movements by gay and straight signers to distinguish linguistic from gestural expressions.^[56] Research on ISL is advanced by the Sign Language Research Lab at the University of Haifa, operational since the 1990s under Wendy Sandler, which examines the emergence of linguistic structures in sign languages through longitudinal studies of ISL and related systems. Key publications from 2022, such as those in Glossa, detail the grammaticalization of relative clauses in ISL, where nonmanual markers like squinted eyes and head tilt signal subordination, evolving from earlier demonstrative pointing signs.^[41] The lab's work often draws on Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language (ABSL) and Kata Kolok Sign Language (KQSL) as models for language birth, highlighting rapid conventionalization of phonology, syntax, and argument structure in isolated communities, providing insights into ISL's own developmental trajectory.^[5] Future directions in ISL media and technology emphasize AI-driven tools, such as automated dictionaries for sign recognition and generation, to address interpreter shortages and expand accessibility in digital platforms.^[71] Efforts also focus on preserving regional dialects amid generational language shifts, supported by corpus data and community policies that promote variant documentation to maintain cultural diversity within the Israeli Deaf community.^[72]

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American Sign Language vs Israeli Sign Language - Start ASL
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Equal Opportunity & oppression the case of deaf education in Israel
The cochlear implant thus strengthened the position of those of the oralist tradition who advocated against the use of sign language in deaf education and ...
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Israel Population (2025) - Worldometer
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[PDF] The Corpus of Israeli Sign Language - ACL Anthology
Compared to other countries, Israel has a unique abundance of sign languages, which emerged naturally within the last hundred years (Meir & Sandler, 2008). The ...
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[PDF] 7. What's in a Place Name in Tibetan Sign Language? Iconicity and ...
... deaf history to this choice of reference, as the Purim parade of the year 1936 seems to have been foundational for the Israel deaf community and the. Purim ...
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Sign Language in Hebrew - Brill Reference Works
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[PDF] Emerging Sign Languages
Israeli Sign language (ISL) is another new deaf community sign language. It evolved along with the Israeli deaf community beginning about 75 years ago, in a ...
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[PDF] The survival of Algerian Jewish Sign Language alongside Israeli ...
In 1944 these social ties were formalised by establishing an association for the deaf in Israel, and creating deaf clubs around the country. Today the ...
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[PDF] CRPD/C/ISR/RQ/1
May 2, 2022 · 142. On November 29, 2020, Government Resolution (GR) No. 591 to ensure the maintenance and development of Israeli Sign Language was adopted.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Organizational Structure - Academy of the Hebrew Language
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Israel's Sign Now is changing the lives of deaf people
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Israeli startup aims to make sign language accessible on demand
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Accepting and facilitating the use of sign languages, Braille, augmentative and alternative communication, and all other accessible means, modes and formats of ...
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Alabama*: Yes. “The Legislature of Alabama recognizes American Sign Language as the official and native language of Deaf people in. Alabama.” American Sign ...
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Word of mouth: Mouthing patterns in a bimodal multilingual deaf ...
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The Vulnerability of Emerging Sign Languages: (E)merging ... - MDPI
We conclude that the degree of language shift in Kufr Qassem is considerable. KQSL may be endangered due to the risk of social and linguistic mergence of the ...
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There is typically only one handshape across a sign, one major location, and one movement. This gives the impression of simultaneity in the phonological ...
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[PDF] 1. Sign language phonology - Harry van der Hulst
... Israeli Sign Language (ISL), which show that either the orientation spreads by itself, or combined with the entire handshape. Since orientation can spread ...
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Evidence is provided to show that Israeli Sign Language (ISL) divides its ... handshape may represent an independent classifier and combine with motion and ...
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Only if it is marked as the topic does it get Brow Raise. Under any analysis, the topic forms a separate syntactic and a separate prosodic constituent. (8).
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In ISL, final Intonational Phrase (IP) boundaries are marked by the same cues as phonological phrase boundaries, often by greater size and slower articulation ...
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[PDF] ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HEBREW LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS
language was the schools for the deaf. The first school was founded in Jerusalem in 1932, fol- lowed by the founding of schools in Tel-Aviv and Haifa in the ...
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[PDF] Order Of The Major Constituents In Sign Languages
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[PDF] Syntactic-Semantic Interaction in Israeli Sign Language Verbs The ...
Figure 1: Inflected forms of the verb GIVE (ASL): agreement is manifested by the change in the direction of the path movement of the verb (sentences (1)–(4)).
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Emergence of a subordinate construction in a sign language
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[PDF] Question and Negation in Israeli Sign Language
The formation of interrogative constructions in Israeli Sign Languages makes use of several mechanisms: lexical items (question words), word order and.
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[PDF] ISL-LEX v.1: An Online Lexical Resource of Israeli Sign Language
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[PDF] II. Morphology - 5. Word classes and word formation
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Events אירועים - Sign Language Research Lab
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Social–Emotional Functioning of Children With Different Hearing ...
In addition, despite their diverse cultural backgrounds, both Arab and Jewish Deaf Israelis consider themselves as part of the Deaf community in Israel. Each ...
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language preferences among hearing parents of deaf children in ein ...
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The Na Laga'at Festival for Groundbreaking Arts 2022 - מרכז נא לגעת
Two specially produced performances for the deaf from the Riksteatern Crea Theater in Sweden and a performance combining singing with sign language by local ...
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Theater - מרכז נא לגעת
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Art helping heal trauma in the deaf community | The Jerusalem Post
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Deaf in Israel people group profile - Joshua Project
Learn about the Deaf in Israel people group. Profiles include statistics, text, photo, map, progress indicator and language resources.
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Embodiment of sexuality by Israeli Sign Language signers and ...
Oct 16, 2024 · A research project investigating gender-specific differences in the articulatory realisation of signs in German Sign Language (DGS) [MA thesis].
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(PDF) Education of Deaf Children in Israel: A Case of Marginalizing ...
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[PDF] A case of marginalizing a minority group Dr. Haggith Gor Ziv ...
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[58]
[PDF] Visual intonation in two sign languages*
Since the advent of research on non-manual signals in American Sign Language in the late 1970s, research on several other languages has shown that certain.
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Communication assistance in Israel is supplied to the Deaf and Hard of Hearing community in Israel by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Services ...
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Committee on the Rights of Persons With Disabilities Concludes its ...
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The survival of Algerian Jewish Sign Language alongside Israeli ...
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Aug 6, 2023 · An Israeli startup is using AI-generated avatars to translate spoken language into sign language almost instantaneously.
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How AI Is Addressing the Shortage of Sign Language Interpreters
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