Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Jesuits


The Society of Jesus, commonly known as the Jesuits (Latin: Societas Iesu, abbreviated SJ), is a Catholic of clerics regular founded by the Spanish priest and theologian and six companions, with formal papal approval granted by on September 27, 1540, via the bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiae. The order's foundational vow includes special obedience to the regarding missions, emphasizing an active apostolate over traditional monastic withdrawal, with a focus on , preaching, and missionary evangelization to combat during the . From its inception, the Jesuits rapidly expanded globally, establishing missions in , , and the , where members like evangelized in , , and , adapting to local cultures while advancing Catholic doctrine. They pioneered extensive educational networks, founding colleges and universities that emphasized rigorous curricula in , sciences, and , influencing the development of modern systems and producing notable scholars in fields like astronomy and . Jesuit scientific endeavors included observatories, calendar reforms, and geographical mapping, often integrating empirical observation with theological inquiry. The order's influence provoked opposition from absolutist monarchs, leading to expulsions from , , and in the 1750s–1760s, culminating in global suppression by in 1773 under pressure from these powers, who viewed Jesuit loyalty to the papacy as a threat to state control. Restored by in 1814, the Jesuits rebuilt, achieving peak membership in the mid-20th century before recent declines, while historical critiques persist regarding their adaptive missionary methods—such as accommodations in and —and perceived political entanglements that fueled conspiracy narratives among opponents.

Origins and Foundation

Ignatius of Loyola's Conversion and Vision

Íñigo López de Loyola, born in 1491 in the region of , pursued a career as a and , aspiring to chivalric romances and worldly honors. On May 20, 1521, during the defense of against French forces, a cannonball shattered his right leg, necessitating prolonged recovery at his family castle in Loyola. Confined to bed, Ignatius initially sought amusement through secular books but turned to available religious texts, including The Life of Christ by Ludolph of Saxony and Flos Sanctorum (Flowers of the Saints). These accounts stirred a profound : fantasies of courtly conquests brought fleeting followed by emptiness, while meditations on imitating saints like and yielded lasting peace, revealing to him the causal distinction between divine and worldly spirits. This discernment precipitated his conversion, resolving to renounce vanities for radical service to God, marked by a vision of the Virgin Mary with the infant Jesus that eradicated his prior temptations. In early 1522, Ignatius undertook a , divesting himself of fine clothes and weapons en route to the monastery of . There, on March 24-25, he completed an exhaustive general confession spanning several days and performed an all-night vigil before the altar of the Virgin, hanging his sword in dedication and adopting pilgrim's as a symbol of detachment from his soldier's identity. Proceeding to Manresa on March 25, 1522, Ignatius embraced severe asceticism for nearly eleven months, subsisting on bread and water, practicing self-flagellation, and praying up to seven hours daily while begging alms. Profound visions ensued, particularly by the Cardoner River, where illuminations on the Trinity and scriptural interpretation granted him unprecedented clarity, equating in intensity to the Pamplona wound's transformative force; he later reflected that these insights birthed his foundational understanding of indifference to worldly attachments in pursuit of divine will. This period solidified his shift to a contemplative yet active obedience, discerning God's promptings over personal ambition.

Formation of the Society of Jesus

The Society of Jesus originated from the commitment of Ignatius of Loyola and six companions who, while studying at the University of Paris, pronounced private vows on August 15, 1534, in the chapel of Montmartre near Paris. The group consisted of Peter Faber, Francis Xavier, Diego Laínez, Alfonso Salmerón, Simão Rodrigues, and Nicolás Bobadilla, all of whom had been drawn to Ignatius's spiritual leadership and shared vision for apostolic service. These vows committed them to perpetual poverty, chastity, and pilgrimage to the Holy Land, with the alternative of placing themselves entirely at the disposal of the Pope if travel proved impossible. This act formalized their initial grouping as a band dedicated to evangelical poverty and missionary zeal, distinct from traditional monastic enclosures. After completing their studies, Ignatius and five companions were ordained priests on June 24, 1537, in , following a period of preparatory . Attempting to fulfill their vow by sailing to , they were thwarted by war with the Ottomans and lack of safe passage, leading the group to in late 1538 for apostolic activities such as preaching and caring for the sick. Upon arrival, they encountered accusations of from inquisitors, prompting Ignatius to compose a personal declaration of to affirm their Catholic fidelity amid the era's theological tensions. In early 1539, convened in Rome, the companions drafted the Formula Instituti—comprising five chapters—as a foundational charter for their proposed institute. This document articulated the society's aim to labor for the "defense and propagation of the faith" through flexible ministries including preaching, teaching youth, administering sacraments, and missions to non-Christians, unbound by fixed locations like monasteries. Central to its innovation was the incorporation of a fourth vow of special obedience to the Pope in mission assignments, designed to ensure unified loyalty, rapid deployment, and direct alignment with papal directives, thereby enabling a mobile, centralized response to the Church's global needs.

Papal Approval and Initial Vows

On August 15, 1534, and six companions—Diego Laínez, Alfonso Salmerón, Nicholas Bobadilla, , , and Simon Rodrigues—professed private vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the chapel of Martyr Saints Denis and companions on hill in , with an additional commitment to undertake a pilgrimage to or place themselves at the disposal of the if unable to do so. These vows formed the nucleus of the nascent group, emphasizing apostolic mobility over traditional monastic stability. Seeking formal recognition, the companions petitioned , who on September 27, 1540, issued the Regimini militantis Ecclesiae, approving the Society of Jesus as a limited to 60 members, without a distinctive , and incorporating a modified of that permitted corporate ownership of goods to facilitate missionary travel and adaptability rather than strict mendicancy. This papal endorsement, prioritizing the defense and propagation of the Catholic amid the Protestant , enabled the Jesuits' structured opposition to doctrinal challenges through itinerant preaching and sacramental ministry. Following approval, was unanimously elected the first Superior General on April 19, 1541, after initially declining a prior ballot; he accepted on the advice of his , committing to perpetual governance of the . The early Jesuits established houses in , such as the Professed House, focusing on preaching sermons, hearing confessions, and instructing in to reinforce Catholic orthodoxy in , where Protestant ideas threatened urban and rural populations. This initial deployment underscored the 's role in the , leveraging papal authority for rapid ecclesiastical reinforcement without the constraints of enclosure or fixed .

Ignatian Spirituality and Theology

The Spiritual Exercises

The , composed by between approximately 1522 and 1524, constitute a structured manual intended to guide a 28- to 30-day retreat under the direction of a spiritual advisor, aimed at facilitating personal and commitment to God's will. The employs , contemplations, and prayers to induce psychological and emotional reorientation, progressing through four thematic "weeks" that methodically dismantle self-centered attachments and reconstruct orientation toward divine service. This sequential structure operates on a causal logic: initial confrontation with human frailty erodes rationalizations for , paving the way for emulation of Christ's mission, which in turn cultivates resilience against suffering and culminates in sustained love-driven action, thereby channeling emotional energies into missionary purpose. The first week focuses on contemplation of personal and collective sin, including visualizations of hell, to evoke sorrow and humility, stripping away illusions of self-sufficiency and highlighting dependence on divine mercy. Causally, this phase leverages —confronting moral failings against ideals—to generate authentic , a psychological pivot that reduces resistance to radical life changes like vows of or work. The second week shifts to the "Kingdom of Christ," contemplating Christ's public life and calling disciples to emulate his labors, fostering with a of purposeful over worldly ease. The third week meditates on the , building endurance by reliving Christ's suffering, while the fourth emphasizes the and a "contemplation to attain ," integrating all prior insights into a holistic that propels outward zeal. Empirical observation of this progression reveals its efficacy in redirecting motivational structures: participants report heightened resolve, as the escalating emotional intensity— from desolation to —reinforces causal attribution of to alignment with a transcendent call, rather than fleeting sentiment. Integral to the Exercises are Ignatius's rules for the , outlined in 14 guidelines that classify interior movements as originating from divine or deceptive sources based on their emotional signatures and outcomes. These rules posit that true consolations—characterized by lasting , clarity, and zeal for despite initial —indicate God's influence, whereas desolations involving turmoil, , or self-focused despair signal adversarial interference, with causal tests like persistence over time or with scripture distinguishing them. From a first-principles standpoint, this framework functions as a diagnostic tool for emotional , training users to parse transient feelings from enduring patterns, thereby mitigating and enhancing fidelity to long-term goods like apostolic labor; for instance, rule one contrasts godly joy's removal of sadness with the enemy's superficial pleasures that mask deeper unrest. In Jesuit formation, the Exercises are adapted as a mandatory 30-day during the , typically in the first year, to imprint this methodology early and repeatedly, with directors tailoring intensity to individual progress. Empirical studies affirm their role in deepening commitment: a 1979 analysis of 42 Jesuit novices found the retreat induced profound conversions, shifting meaning systems toward radical service and correlating with sustained formation perseverance, though broader retention challenges persist due to external factors like cultural . Another investigation validated transformative effects, evidencing causal links between Exercises-induced and heightened missionary orientation, as participants exhibited measurable increases in spiritual freedom and reduced attachment to prior identities. These findings, drawn from self-reported and observational data within Jesuit cohorts, suggest the Exercises' structure causally bolsters retention among those who internalize its logic, countering dropout risks by forging emotional resilience tied to perceived divine endorsement of vocation.

Core Principles of Obedience and Discernment

The Jesuit principle of obedience, articulated by Ignatius of Loyola, demands submission to superiors and the Pope "without questioning," enabling the Society to function as a unified instrument for the Church's mission. Rooted in Ignatius's experience as a soldier, this obedience draws on a military analogy, likening Jesuits to disciplined troops deployable at a moment's notice, as formalized in the 1540 papal bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiae approving the order's structure. In his 1553 letter on obedience, Ignatius describes perfect obedience as a "holocaust" offering the entire person—will and intellect—without reserve, extending to "blind" execution of commands devoid of personal inquiry. This extends to the famous directive perinde ac cadaver ("as if a corpse") in the Society's Constitutions, emphasizing total docility to authority for swift, coordinated action against spiritual threats. Central to Jesuit discernment is the pursuit of the —the greater good—guided by the motto ("For the greater glory of God"), which Ignatius invoked 376 times in the Constitutions to orient decisions toward maximal divine service. Discernment involves prayerful indifference to outcomes, weighing interior movements to identify paths advancing God's glory more effectively, rather than lesser alternatives. This principle tempers raw obedience by directing it toward ends that amplify apostolic impact, as in prioritizing missions yielding broader evangelization over static . Ignatius balanced this rigor with allowances for conscience in his letters, permitting Jesuits to represent difficulties to superiors after prayer and , while insisting on ultimate conformity for the "unity which sustains the existence of any society." Such obedience fostered causal , enabling rapid deployment during the —by 1556, over 1,000 Jesuits operated across Europe and beyond, countering Protestant gains through synchronized intellectual and missionary efforts. Yet, the demand for intellectual submission risks abuse if superiors err, potentially sidelining moral judgment; historical suppressions, like the 1773 papal brief Dominus ac Redemptor, partly stemmed from perceptions of Jesuit overreach enabled by unyielding loyalty, underscoring tensions between hierarchical control and individual agency.

Theological Distinctives and Counter-Reformation Role

The Jesuit order distinguished itself theologically by advocating a synergistic understanding of grace and human free will, positing that divine grace initiates salvation but requires human cooperation for its efficacy, in direct opposition to the Protestant doctrines of absolute predestination and irresistible grace articulated by reformers like John Calvin. This position, formalized in Luis de Molina's 1588 Concordia, employed the concept of divine middle knowledge—God's awareness of all possible human choices—to reconcile divine foreknowledge with libertarian free will, allowing God to actualize a world where creatures freely align with his purposes without coercion. Unlike the monergistic soteriology of Calvinism, where grace operates unilaterally to ensure the elect's response, Jesuit theology emphasized gratia congrua (fitting grace), tailored to individual circumstances to elicit voluntary assent, thereby preserving moral responsibility amid original sin's effects. This framework sparked intra-Catholic controversy, notably the De Auxiliis dispute (1598–1607) between Jesuits and Dominicans, where the former defended Molinism against Thomistic views of physical predetermination, a tension unresolved by papal decree to avoid schism. In their Counter-Reformation contributions, Jesuits exerted influence at the (1545–1563), where Diego Laínez and Alfonso Salmerón served as papal theologians, helping shape decrees on justification that affirmed 's integrity post-fall and the necessity of cooperative merit under , countering Lutheran and Calvinist double . Session (1547) explicitly declared that , though weakened by sin, remains capable of assenting to without being utterly destroyed, enabling humans to perform acts meriting —a causal mechanism rooted in empirical observation of rather than deterministic decree. This Tridentine synthesis, bolstered by Jesuit advocacy, provided doctrinal ammunition against Protestant by integrating patristic and scholastic sources, though it masked underlying debates on 's sufficiency that persisted beyond the council. Complementing doctrinal defense, the (1599) institutionalized rigorous scholastic pedagogy across Jesuit colleges to inculcate Thomistic realism and dialectical reasoning, equipping and to refute through precise and evidential . By standardizing curricula emphasizing , metaphysics, and scriptural , it fostered a causal where theological truths were demonstrable via first principles and historical testimony, not mere . Prominent Jesuit polemicists like advanced this in his Disputationes de Controversiis (1586–1593), empirically defending through scriptural typology (e.g., Peter's keys in Matthew 16:18–19) and patristic consensus against reformers' episcopal parity claims, arguing the pope's jurisdictional supremacy as a divinely ordained essential for ecclesial . Bellarmine's approach prioritized verifiable succession and functional efficacy over abstract equality, exposing Protestant ecclesiology's causal incoherence in sustaining doctrinal coherence absent a visible head. ![Page from the Ratio Studiorum, the Jesuit educational plan of 1599][center]

Organizational Structure and Practices

Vows, Formation, and Training Process

The formation process for members of the Society of Jesus spans approximately 10 to 15 years, encompassing stages of spiritual probation, intellectual training in , , , and sciences, and practical apostolic experience to foster adaptability in and educational roles. This extended timeline, rooted in the order's founding documents, emphasizes discernment through the and community living, with high attrition rates—often exceeding 50% across stages—serving as a mechanism for selective retention of committed candidates amid broader declines in vocations. Candidates enter the as novices, typically in their late 20s or 30s, for an initial two-year period focused on intensive prayer, the , manual labor, and communal life to test and nurture . Upon completion, they pronounce first vows of , , and , becoming scholastics (for future ) or coadjutor brothers, with the latter path adapting formation to prioritize practical ministry over extensive theology. Following the , first studies last three years, covering , , and introductory sciences in a Jesuit community, often at a university setting. Subsequent regency involves 2–3 years of supervised apostolic work, such as in Jesuit schools or outreach, integrating prior learning with real-world application. studies then span 3–4 years, including specialized cycles and often international components, culminating in to the diaconate and priesthood for scholastics around age 34 on average. Post-ordination, tertianship—known as the "third probation"—constitutes a 9–12 month final testing phase of repeated , , and vocational reflection, after which successful candidates take perpetual vows, including the fourth vow of special obedience to the regarding missions. This structure, while producing versatile , correlates with ongoing vocation shortfalls, as global Jesuit numbers fell from over 17,200 in 2013 to around 14,000 by 2024, with average priestly age nearing 63.

Governance and Hierarchical Authority

The Society of Jesus operates under a centralized hierarchical governance led by the Superior General, who holds authority over all members and missions worldwide, with the power to appoint and dismiss superiors, direct personnel movements, and shape strategic priorities. This structure, outlined in the Jesuit Constitutions approved in 1553, emphasizes absolute obedience from members to their superiors, culminating in the fourth vow of special obedience to the Pope on matters of mission assignment, which facilitates swift, unified action across dispersed operations. The Superior General's influence has earned the moniker "Black Pope," originating from the Jesuits' traditional black cassock contrasting the Pope's white, and reflecting perceptions of the General's extensive internal autonomy and advisory role to the Holy See. The Superior General is elected by the General Congregation, the order's supreme governing body composed of all provincial superiors and delegates elected by provinces, requiring an absolute majority vote conducted in secret and under to ensure over factionalism. Historically elected for life, recent Superiors General, such as elected in 2016, have served terms allowing for , with the Congregation convening upon a vacancy to both select a successor and address broader legislative matters like doctrinal emphases or global reallocations. This elective process, while democratic within the order, reinforces centralization by vesting broad executive powers in one individual, enabling decisions such as the 1965-1975 reforms under that reoriented Jesuit priorities toward without prolonged provincial debate. Subordinate to the Superior General are provincial superiors, appointed for renewable six-year terms to govern geographic provinces—typically encompassing multiple countries or regions—and supported by consultors and a socius for administrative counsel. Provincials manage local houses, finances, and personnel while reporting directly to the , balancing centralized directives with regional adaptations, as in the reallocation of missionaries from to in the 16th century under Ignatius Loyola or later shifts during colonial expansions. Following the 1814 papal restoration after suppression, provinces assumed greater financial self-sufficiency through endowments and local revenues, insulating operations from national confiscations that had previously dismantled the order, though ultimate fiscal oversight remains with the General to prevent fragmentation. This obedience-driven causally promotes by curtailing bureaucratic delays and enabling rapid responses to opportunities or threats, evidenced by the Jesuits' ability to sustain global missions with limited resources through prompt personnel redeployments, yet it concentrates decision-making risks, where a single superior's misjudgment can propagate uniformly absent counterbalancing mechanisms. Empirical instances include General Claudio Acquaviva's 1581-1615 directives standardizing education ratios and mission protocols across provinces, which streamlined expansion but occasionally overrode local cultural insights.

Habit, Dress, and Daily Discipline

The Society of Jesus adopted clerical dress rather than a fixed to prioritize apostolic mobility and cultural adaptation over monastic uniformity. The Constitutions, drafted by Loyola in the mid-16th century, mandate "clothing suitable to the person and the place," typically a long black fastened with a black , reflecting contemporary clerical without distinctive . This simplicity extended to novices, who donned standard clerical garb upon entry, avoiding the elaborate habits of other orders to minimize barriers in evangelization. After the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), Jesuit attire evolved toward greater flexibility, with many members shifting to black clerical suits paired with a white Roman collar for everyday use, while retaining cassocks for formal or traditional settings. This change aligned with broader liturgical reforms emphasizing , yet preserved the core principle of unpretentious priestly identification without mandating uniformity. Daily discipline centers on personal ascetic practices integrated with communal life, including the evening examen—a methodical review of the day's actions, emotions, and consolations to detect divine guidance—undertaken privately to cultivate amid active ministry. Unlike contemplative orders, Jesuits forgo fixed choral recitation of the , reciting it individually to maintain readiness for unplanned apostolic demands, as stipulated in the original Constitutions. Community residences enforce shared meals, limited recreation, and accountability, reinforcing interdependence without rigid horarium. Early Constitutions linked such disciplines to mission efficacy, mandating strict poverty—eschewing personal possessions for communal administration—to avert dissipation from worldly contacts, while obedience ensured unified focus despite geographic dispersion. These provisions, formalized by 1553, empirically sustained Jesuit resilience in volatile postings, as evidenced by sustained expansion before the 1773 suppression.

Missionary Expansion and Global Impact

Early Missions in Europe and Asia

The Jesuit missions in Asia commenced with 's arrival in , , on May 6, 1542, where he initiated evangelization efforts among Portuguese settlers and local populations, baptizing an estimated 30,000 individuals by the early 1550s despite formidable linguistic and cultural obstacles. Xavier extended his work to the Moluccas and , landing at on August 15, 1549, as the first European missionary there, establishing small Christian communities amid samurai resistance and establishing a foundation for subsequent Jesuit presence. His attempt to reach in 1552 ended with his death on that December, having baptized thousands across Asia but facing limited deep penetration due to entrenched non-Christian traditions. In Europe, Jesuits countered the Protestant Reformation by founding educational institutions, beginning with the College of Messina in Sicily in 1548, which served as a model for rigorous Catholic instruction aimed at clergy and laity to refute Lutheran doctrines. By the 1550s, colleges proliferated in cities like Rome (1551), Vienna (1553), and Ingolstadt (1556), training thousands in theology and humanities to bolster Catholic orthodoxy and reclaim regions swayed by reformist ideas. These establishments emphasized disputational skills and loyalty to papal authority, contributing to the containment of Protestant expansion in Italy, Austria, and Poland. Robert Bellarmine, a prominent Jesuit theologian, advanced these efforts through his Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei (Disputations on the Controversies of the Christian Faith), first published in Ingolstadt in 1581 and expanded into three volumes by 1593, systematically critiquing Protestant positions on scripture, sacraments, and church governance using patristic and scriptural evidence. As professor at the Roman College and later Louvain, Bellarmine's works influenced Counter-Reformation apologetics, equipping clergy for debates and reinforcing Catholic unity against schismatic challenges. Jesuit outreach in China evolved under Matteo Ricci, who entered Portuguese Macao in 1582 and crossed into mainland China in 1583, employing an accommodation strategy that integrated Christian doctrine with Confucian ethics to appeal to scholar-officials, portraying Christianity as compatible with ancestral rites. Ricci reached Beijing in 1601, presenting scientific instruments like a world map and clock to Emperor Wanli, which facilitated baptisms of elites including Xu Guangqi and secured imperial tolerance, though mass conversions remained elusive due to ritual controversies and isolation. By Ricci's death in 1610, the mission had yielded about 2,500 converts, primarily intellectuals, laying groundwork for scientific exchanges while navigating bans on foreign religions.

Colonization-Era Activities in the Americas

Jesuits established missions across the Americas during the 16th to 18th centuries, focusing on evangelization while often positioning themselves as protectors of populations against colonial exploitation. In and territories, they founded reducciones—organized settlements where natives were gathered for Christian instruction and communal living, shielding them from slave raids by from . These efforts prioritized and , with Jesuits learning local languages to facilitate , though high mortality from European diseases complicated outcomes. In the region, Jesuits initiated Guaraní reducciones in 1609, establishing up to 30 missions by the mid-18th century that housed a peak population of approximately 150,000 indigenous people. These self-sustaining communities emphasized , , and craftsmanship, generating surplus goods traded with colonial economies while avoiding the labor system. Jesuits protected residents from enslavement, intervening militarily against Portuguese incursions, as seen in the 1641 Battle of Mbororé where they repelled raiders. Empirical data indicate positive long-term effects, with former mission areas showing elevated and levels persisting into modern times, attributed to Jesuit emphasis on basic schooling and skills training. However, the reducciones embodied paternalistic governance, enforcing communal property and daily routines under Jesuit supervision, which fostered dependency and curtailed individual decision-making despite providing security. was promoted for catechetical purposes, with Guaraní learning to read doctrinal texts, though access remained tied to religious compliance rather than broad empowerment. Conflicts arose with colonial authorities over ; Jesuits petitioned crowns against enslavement, as Antonio Ruiz de Montoya did in the 1630s, but such advocacy fueled resentment from settlers seeking cheap labor, contributing to the order's 1767 expulsion. In , French Jesuits launched missions in from 1611, targeting Huron-Wendat and other groups with immersion strategies involving and cultural adaptation. , arriving in 1625, endured hardships to catechize thousands before his 1649 martyrdom alongside seven companions at hands during intertribal wars exacerbated by rivalries. These efforts yielded baptisms numbering in the thousands annually at peaks, but faced high attrition from epidemics and resistance, with Jesuits documenting native skepticism toward sacraments linked to post-baptismal deaths. Tensions with colonial fur traders over native alliances underscored Jesuit prioritization of spiritual over economic imperatives.

Long-Term Evangelization Strategies and Adaptations

The Jesuits developed evangelization strategies centered on cultural accommodation, aiming to present Christian doctrine through familiar local idioms while preserving doctrinal integrity, a method distinct from more confrontational approaches by other orders. This involved mastering indigenous languages, incorporating artistic forms, and engaging existing social structures to foster genuine conversion rather than coerced adherence. In the , arriving on September 17, 1581, Jesuit pioneers like Antonio Sedeño prioritized learning and other vernaculars, translating catechisms and composing devotional texts to embed Gospel teachings in native contexts, which facilitated rapid establishment of missions in Manila's outskirts such as and Quiapo. Such adaptations contributed to sustained Catholic adherence, with the achieving over 80% Catholic population by the , reflecting higher retention through culturally resonant practices compared to regions with less linguistic integration. In , from initial Brazilian missions in 1549, Jesuits extended this approach by adapting liturgical elements and educational methods to customs, as seen in Paraguayan where communal structures mirrored Guarani social organization, yielding tens of thousands of converts by the before suppression disrupted continuity. Long-term efficacy hinged on causal factors like communal , which reduced relapse to pre-Christian ; historical data indicate these missions sustained Catholic majorities in countries, with retaining around 90% nominal Catholicism into modern eras despite secular drifts. However, adaptations risked when blurring ancestral veneration with Christian worship, as critiqued in the (initiated circa 1630s), where Jesuit allowances for Confucian rituals were deemed incompatible by papal decrees in 1704 and 1742, leading to imperial bans and stalled growth—China's Catholic population remained under 1% post-controversy, underscoring how permissive could erode conversion depth if not rigorously orthodox. Post-restoration in 1814, Jesuit strategies evolved toward dialogical engagement, particularly in from the late , emphasizing via local symbols and rites vetted against —e.g., in Zimbabwean missions (1879 onward), Jesuits integrated Shona proverbs into preaching while rejecting spirit mediumship, achieving convert communities that withstood colonial disruptions. This shift from early modern confrontation—evident in European polemics—to contextual correlated with improved retention; Jesuit provinces reported 70-80% post-baptismal persistence in the , attributed to addressing cultural causalities like ties over abstract . Empirical contrasts, such as higher reversion in rigidly imposed missions versus adaptive ones, affirm that sustainable evangelization demands discerning cultural permeation without dilution, avoiding the doctrinal compromises that historically hampered expansion in .

Intellectual and Scientific Achievements

Educational Institutions and Pedagogy

![Title page of the Ratio Studiorum (1599)][float-right] The Jesuits established an extensive network of educational institutions beginning shortly after their founding, with the first college opened in , , in 1548. By the death of Loyola in 1556, 35 schools had been founded, primarily in , emphasizing the teaching of , , and to form pious and intellectually rigorous Catholics. A prominent example is the , established by Loyola in 1551 as a center for , , and Christian doctrine, later evolving into the . This rapid expansion continued, resulting in hundreds of colleges across and missionary territories by the 17th century, focusing curricula on Latin and Greek authors, rhetorical exercises, and dramatic performances to cultivate and . Central to Jesuit pedagogy was the Ratio Studiorum, formally promulgated in 1599, which standardized teaching methods across institutions. It prescribed innovations such as emulation of classical models, where students imitated exemplary texts to internalize style and substance; systematic repetition through daily reviews to reinforce memory; and disputations to sharpen logical argumentation. These techniques were explicitly linked to moral formation, aiming to integrate intellectual discipline with spiritual exercises drawn from Loyola's Spiritual Exercises, fostering habits of self-examination and obedience to Church authority. The Ratio rejected overly speculative innovations, prioritizing proven classical methods adapted for Christian ends, with teachers serving as moral exemplars rather than mere lecturers. Empirically, Jesuit education demonstrated success in producing influential elites who reinforced Catholic loyalty during the . Alumni from Jesuit colleges, often drawn from and upper echelons, filled roles in hierarchies, courts, and administrations, providing a bulwark against Protestant inroads by promoting Tridentine orthodoxy and cultural resistance. For instance, the formation of lay and clerical leaders educated in Jesuit schools correlated with strengthened Catholic adherence in regions like and , where alumni defended papal authority and suppressed heretical movements. This outcome stemmed causally from the 's emphasis on rhetorical prowess and moral indoctrination, equipping graduates to articulate and embody ideals effectively. Critiques of have persisted, noting that Jesuit institutions historically prioritized tuition-free education for elites while limiting access for lower classes, potentially exacerbating social hierarchies under the guise of merit. Such selectivity, while enabling influence among decision-makers, drew accusations of fostering an insulated Catholic disconnected from broader societal needs, though proponents argue it strategically targeted leverage points for preservation. This approach's long-term efficacy is evidenced by the disproportionate representation of Jesuit alumni in 16th- and 17th-century Catholic , sustaining institutional amid confessional conflicts.

Contributions to Astronomy, Mathematics, and Natural Sciences

Jesuits advanced astronomy and through Church-supported institutions, enabling empirical s and calculations that refuted claims of wholesale opposition to scientific progress. , S.J. (1538–1612), a mathematician at the , led the commission under for the 1582 reform, which corrected the Julian calendar's drift by omitting 10 days and refining rules—skipping them in century years not divisible by 400—to better synchronize with solar cycles based on precise astronomical data. This adjustment, implemented October 4–15, 1582, remains in use, demonstrating Jesuit integration of and under papal directive. In , Christoph Scheiner, S.J. (1575–1650), began systematic studies in March 1611 using projected images to protect his eyes, independently of Galileo; his publications, including Three Letters on Sunspots (1612), mapped spots' motion to infer the Sun's axial rotation tilted relative to the . Scheiner's work, conducted at and later in , contributed to understanding solar dynamics despite priority disputes. Jesuits established observatories across , , and the by the late , such as at the , facilitating comet tracking, planetary positions, and geophysical measurements; by 1700, nearly every major Jesuit college housed such facilities for astronomy and related fields. In natural sciences, , S.J. (1602–1680), explored in Mundus Subterraneus (1665), proposing subterranean fluid channels and fires as causes of volcanic activity and earthquakes, informed by visits to and ; he also pioneered , observing "invisible little worms" in plague-infested blood, prefiguring germ theory by linking microbes to contagion. These efforts, often mission-based, extended to ethnography-tied in the and , yielding data on and . Post-1633 condemnation of heliocentrism, Jesuit astronomers like Christoph Grienberger, S.J., continued telescopic observations of satellites and comets at the Roman College, incorporating Keplerian elements pragmatically while adhering to official geocentrism publicly; privately, many adopted hybrid models or heliocentric computations for accuracy in calendars and ephemerides, as seen in Chinese missions where Jesuits calibrated predictions using Copernican methods from 1644 onward, reflecting empirical prioritization over dogma. This pragmatic engagement, funded by ecclesiastical networks, sustained Jesuit leadership in 18th–19th-century observatories for meteorology and seismology, underscoring patronage's role in fostering data-driven inquiry.

Philosophical and Theological Scholarship

Jesuit theological scholarship in the emphasized rigorous defenses of Catholic , particularly in response to Protestant challenges on , , and moral obligation. Through the Second , Jesuits systematized Thomistic principles while innovating to reconcile with human agency, producing voluminous treatises that upheld doctrines like efficacious and without compromising libertarian freedom. This body of work, spanning metaphysics, , and ethics, prioritized causal explanations of divine-human interaction, arguing that God's foreknowledge and providence operate through created contingencies rather than deterministic coercion. Luis de Molina's Concordia liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis (1588) exemplified this approach by introducing "middle knowledge," positing that God possesses exhaustive comprehension of counterfactuals—what free creatures would do in any possible circumstance—enabling divine to align seamlessly with human volition. Molina contended that efficaciously moves the will without violating its liberty, as God's arrangement of circumstances leverages innate creaturely responses, thus preserving against both Pelagian overemphasis on merit and Calvinist predestinarianism. This framework influenced subsequent Jesuit , providing a causal mechanism for salvation history that integrated empirical observations of with scriptural mandates. Francisco Suárez advanced metaphysical foundations in his Disputationes Metaphysicae (1597), delineating being as the proper object of philosophy and deriving from rational participation in , which laid groundwork for ius gentium as a universal norm binding nations. Suárez's emphasized real distinctions between essence and existence, supporting theological claims of created under divine causation, and his legal theories—positing and just war criteria—influenced secular international by rooting rights in metaphysical rather than arbitrary will. Juan de extended grace theories in the 17th century, arguing that sufficient is universally proffered, even to non-Christians, sufficient for basic moral acts and if implicitly accepted through natural reason, though explicit remains normative for full incorporation into the . His views balanced doctrinal exclusivity with causal efficacy, positing that divine assistance operates proximately through human faculties, avoiding both and . In moral theology, Jesuit adoption of probabilism—initially articulated by Bartolomé de Medina but refined by figures like —permitted adherence to solidly probable opinions dissenting from more rigorous interpretations of , when grounded in authoritative sources. This acknowledged the complexity of formation, causally prioritizing actionable fidelity over speculative severity, as strict rigorism risked paralyzing decision-making in ambiguous cases, whereas probabilism facilitated pastoral guidance aligned with observed human limitations and . Jesuits defended it as orthodox, citing Aquinas's allowance for doubt resolution, though it demanded intellectual probity to avoid laxity. From the late 16th to 18th centuries, Jesuits dominated Catholic philosophical and theological output, comprising a majority of influential scholastics in centers like and , with treatises numbering in the thousands that shaped curricula and papal encyclicals until the 19th-century rise of . Their quantitative preeminence—evidenced by over 500 major works in alone by 1700—stemmed from institutional mandates for and , ensuring orthodoxy's intellectual vigor amid strife.

Suppression, Restoration, and Modern Evolution

Causes and Execution of the 1773 Suppression

The suppression of the Society of Jesus culminated in the papal brief Dominus ac Redemptor Noster issued by on July 21, 1773, which formally disbanded the order worldwide following a series of national expulsions driven by absolutist monarchs seeking to consolidate power. These expulsions began in in 1759 under the Marquis of Pombal, who targeted the Jesuits for their control over education, missions, and colonial enterprises, viewing them as obstacles to royal authority and papal mediation. Pombal's campaign intensified after the and the 1758 attempted assassination of King Joseph I, in which he falsely implicated the Jesuits via the fabricated Távora plot, leading to their arrest, property seizure, and deportation of over 1,000 members. Similar dynamics unfolded in in 1767 under , where the Jesuits were expelled amid aimed at curbing ecclesiastical influence; accusations of inciting the 1766 Esquilache riots in , though unsubstantiated, provided pretext for rounding up approximately 2,700 Spanish Jesuits and confiscating their assets, including missions in the . Underlying these actions were political-economic grievances, including monarchial envy of the Jesuits' accumulated influence and resources, particularly through the prosperous reducciones in , where by the mid-18th century, 30 missions housed over 140,000 Guaraní people in self-sustaining communities producing , cattle, and crafts for export, generating communal wealth that rivaled colonial encomiendas and fueled resentment among settlers deprived of cheap labor. While claims of personal Jesuit opulence were exaggerated—much of the economic output supported mission sustainability and defense against slave raids—these enterprises symbolized a perceived "state within a state," clashing with royal efforts to centralize colonial extraction following the 1750 Treaty, which provoked Guaraní uprisings that Pombal and officials attributed to Jesuit instigation. Additional charges of regicidal plots and laxity via probabilism drew from longstanding anti-Jesuit polemics, but empirical scrutiny reveals many as fabricated to justify seizures; for instance, Pombal's execution of Jesuit Gabriele Malagrida on charges in 1761 lacked credible evidence, serving instead to dismantle papal loyalty amid Enlightenment-era absolutism that prioritized state sovereignty over ultramontane orders. The universal suppression via Dominus ac Redemptor was executed under intense pressure from courts, with Clement XIV, compelled to avert , ordering the Society's , dispersal of its members, and transfer of properties to local bishops or states; this affected approximately 22,589 Jesuits across 49 provinces, who faced arrest, exile to or the , and forced secularization or absorption into other orders. Assets, including colleges and missions, were seized, disrupting global operations and scattering personnel, though the brief cited internal scandals and disobedience as pretexts, reflecting coerced papal capitulation to secular powers rather than isolated Jesuit failings.

Underground Survival and 1814 Restoration

Following the 1773 papal suppression, the Society of Jesus persisted primarily through the refusal of Catherine II of Russia to promulgate the bull Dominus ac Redemptor within her territories, allowing approximately 200 Jesuits to continue operations centered in . This preservation stemmed from Catherine's pragmatic valuation of Jesuit educational expertise in managing schools and academies, which served state interests, alongside her geopolitical motive to defy the monarchs who had pressured into the suppression. The irony lay in an Orthodox autocrat safeguarding a Catholic order against papal dissolution, enabling the maintenance of Jesuit governance structures, including the election of superiors and adherence to the , which formed the nucleus for eventual revival. Elsewhere in and the , suppression enforcement varied, fostering clandestine continuations where Jesuits operated sub rosa as secular clergy or in dispersed groups, particularly in —where the English Province had evaded full dissolution—and scattered missions in under nominal diocesan oversight. These informal networks, numbering a few hundred at most, preserved and rudimentary formation but lacked official status, relying on remittances from brethren and occasional recruits who took private vows. By the early 1800s, Jesuits began discreet outreach, dispatching members to , the , , and , laying groundwork for reestablishment amid post-Napoleonic realignments. The turning point came on August 7, 1814, when issued the bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, universally restoring the after consultations with surviving leaders, including Russian Provincial Tadeusz Brzozowski, whom Pius appointed . This decree, motivated by Pius's recognition of Jesuit loyalty during his Napoleonic captivity and the order's utility against revolutionary secularism, nullified the 1773 suppression and mandated global reincorporation, with the Russian contingent providing administrative continuity. Alessandro Fortis was elected as the first superior general of the restored in , succeeding Brzozowski, and oversaw initial reorganization amid hostilities from states wary of clerical revival. Post-restoration, membership surged from around 600 in 1814 to over 5,000 by 1848, driven by aggressive recruitment in and renewed missions, peaking near 20,000 by the late through establishment of colleges and adaptations to nationalist pressures via localized governance and emphasis on universal education over direct political entanglement. This expansion reflected causal resilience: the Russian safeguard, unintended by Catholic hierarchy, supplied the institutional core that propelled recovery, underscoring how external political contingencies could sustain religious orders beyond doctrinal fidelity alone.

20th-Century Adaptations and Post-Vatican II Shifts

Under Pedro Arrupe's generalate from 1965 to 1983, the Society of Jesus underwent a pronounced reorientation toward social activism, encapsulated in his 1973 address challenging Jesuits to pursue a " that does justice," which prioritized structural societal change alongside . This shift built on the Second Vatican Council's (1962–1965) calls for ecclesial renewal, including greater lay involvement and ecumenical dialogue, but manifested in Jesuits through diminished emphasis on classical contemplative practices and increased immersion in political advocacy. Arrupe's framework integrated with preferential options for the marginalized, influencing Jesuit operations in and beyond, where members engaged in grassroots organizing against perceived systemic injustices. The Council's liturgical reforms, promoting vernacular Masses and active participation, further altered Jesuit communal life, fostering a less hierarchical and more outward-facing identity that aligned with ecumenism's push for interfaith cooperation. However, this adaptation correlated with a marked erosion in traditional disciplines like rigorous philosophical training and ascetic formation, as resources pivoted toward social analysis and advocacy training. Jesuit involvement in , particularly in during the , exemplified this trend; proponents like framed Christ's mission through class struggle lenses, drawing Jesuits into contentious alliances with revolutionary movements despite cautions against Marxist influences. Arrupe defended such engagements as faithful extensions of imperatives, yet critics within the argued they diluted the order's contemplative core, substituting doctrinal depth for temporal activism. Empirical trends underscore this causal pivot: Jesuit membership peaked at approximately 36,000 worldwide in the mid-1960s, coinciding with pre-conciliar highs in vocations, but ordinations and entrants plummeted thereafter, with U.S. seminarians dropping from 3,559 in 1965 to under 400 by 2000, reflecting broader disinvestment from formation pipelines amid justice-oriented reallocations. This decline, sharper than in unaltered contemplative orders, suggests that the post-Vatican II emphasis on —evident in Jesuit for refugees and environmental causes by the late —eroded the appeal of the society's historic intellectual and spiritual rigor, prioritizing immediate societal interventions over sustained evangelical contemplation.

Current Membership Decline and Institutional Challenges

The Society of Jesus experienced its peak membership of 36,038 in 1965, but numbers have since plummeted to 13,995 as of 2024, reflecting a decline of over 60% in less than six decades. By 2022, total professed members stood at 14,439, including 10,432 priests, with the drop attributed to fewer entrants and higher attrition rates amid broader in Western societies. In the United States, Jesuit numbers fell from 8,377 in 1965 to around 2,500 by the early 21st century, exacerbating regional shortages. Demographic aging compounds the crisis, particularly in and , where the average Jesuit age exceeds 60 and in some areas, like , 10% are over 90 years old. Vocation scarcity persists globally, with only 22 ordinations to the priesthood announced for the , , and in 2025, signaling insufficient replenishment to offset deaths and departures. This has led to institutional contractions, including the effective disappearance of Jesuit presence in certain countries within years and consolidations of provinces to manage dwindling personnel for schools and missions. Internal challenges include debates over doctrinal orthodoxy, with critics attributing decline to post-Vatican II adaptations that prioritized social activism over traditional spiritual rigor, deterring conservative vocations. Financial pressures arise from clerical abuse scandals, such as €7.4 million in settlements paid to 78 survivors in Ireland alone by 2022, alongside reparations for cases involving figures like former Jesuit , straining resources amid shrinking donor bases. Secular cultural shifts further erode appeal, as evidenced by novice entries dropping from hundreds annually in the mid-20th century to tens today in key regions.

Controversies and Criticisms

Political Influence and Intrigue Accusations

Jesuits frequently served as confessors to monarchs, gaining access to advise on matters of and policy, which fueled perceptions of undue political sway. For instance, d'Aix de La Chaise held the position of confessor to from 1675 until his death in 1709, reportedly influencing the king's decisions on religious uniformity, including the 1685 revocation of the that suppressed . Similarly, early Jesuits like Simão Rodrigues acted as confessor to King João III of starting in the 1540s, facilitating the order's expansion in colonial administration while prioritizing missionary goals over purely secular interests. This proximity to power enabled Jesuits to promote objectives, such as forging Catholic alliances against Protestant states, but it also invited charges of manipulating rulers for ecclesiastical ends rather than transparent counsel. Accusations of outright intrigue often lacked empirical substantiation, as seen in the 1605 in , where Jesuits were scapegoated despite no direct organizational involvement. The plot, orchestrated by lay Catholic conspirators including , aimed to assassinate I and destroy ; Jesuit superior learned of it indirectly through the seal of confession but neither initiated nor endorsed the scheme, leading to his execution in 1606 amid anti-Catholic hysteria that branded the event the "Jesuit Treason." Contemporary Protestant polemics amplified claims of Jesuit orchestration, yet archival evidence from Jesuit correspondence shows directives against violent , emphasizing persuasion and loyalty to the papacy over subversive acts. Such narratives persisted, contributing to expulsions like Portugal's 1759 decree under Marquis of Pombal, who fabricated Jesuit ties to the Tavora family's alleged attempt against King Joseph I to seize their assets and curb papal influence. The Jesuits' fourth vow of special obedience to the , instituted by Loyola in 1534 and formalized in the 1550 Regimini militantis Ecclesiae, underscored their prioritization of , providing causal grounds for monarchial suspicions of divided allegiance. This fidelity manifested in resistance to state encroachments, such as Jesuit refusals to swear oaths subordinating during suppressions in (1764) and (1767), where rulers cited the order's international structure as a threat to . While critics, including and Jansenist factions, decried this as casuistic evasion enabling hidden agendas, verifiable records indicate Jesuits' policy impacts—such as bolstering Catholic monarchies against or Protestant threats—stemmed more from ideological consistency than clandestine puppetry. The 1773 papal suppression under Clement XIV, pressured by Bourbon monarchs, reflected these tensions, dissolving the order globally amid claims of political overreach, though subsequent attributes much anti-Jesuit to secular rulers' bids for control over and missions. Empirical patterns thus reveal advisory influence rooted in confessional trust, contrasted against unsubstantiated plots amplified by state to neutralize a rival power center.

Involvement in Slavery and Colonial Exploitation

In colonial , Jesuits operated plantations such as those at St. Inigoes, Newtown, and White Marsh, employing enslaved labor to sustain agricultural and fund educational institutions like . By the early , these holdings encompassed six plantations covering nearly 12,000 acres worked by hundreds of enslaved individuals, whose labor generated revenue through and other crops despite papal prohibitions on certain forms of enslavement, such as Paul III's 1537 bull condemning the subjugation of —though chattel faced less uniform ecclesiastical opposition. In during the 18th century, Jesuit establishments including the Bahia college owned approximately 70 enslaved s and participated in transatlantic slave shipments to support mission economies, monopolizing labor for ranches and plantations while importing slaves for intensive agriculture like , prioritizing financial self-sufficiency over amid colonial demands. An exception occurred in the Jesuit reducciones of and the region, where from the early , missionaries aggregated over 30 Guarani communities into semi-autonomous settlements housing up to 150,000 indigenous residents by the mid-18th century, shielding them from bandeirante slave raids that annually captured thousands for Brazilian markets. These missions implemented communal labor systems, craft workshops, and defenses—including armed resistance in the 1750s —fostering population stability and economic output via herds of 300,000 cattle and exports of , contrasting broader Jesuit complicity by prioritizing indigenous protection from encomienda bondage over exploitation. After the Society's restoration, Maryland Jesuits continued slave ownership until financial pressures prompted the sale of 272 enslaved individuals—many families separated—to Louisiana planters for $115,000 (equivalent to about $3.5 million today), enabling Georgetown's but delaying full until U.S. abolition in 1865, as mission funding imperatives persisted in a slave-based . In contemporary acknowledgments, the Jesuits have condemned historical slaveholding as "evil" and sinful, launching initiatives like the Slavery, History, , and Reconciliation Project and pledging $100 million in 2021 for descendant education and support, reflecting retrospective causal analysis of economic dependencies without excusing participation.

Casuistry, Moral Theology Debates, and Probabilism

Probabilism, a moral theological doctrine permitting adherence to a solidly probable opinion favoring personal liberty even when opposed by a more probable stricter interpretation of law, originated with the Dominican theologian Bartolomé de Medina's 1577 formulation in his commentary on Aquinas's Summa Theologica. Although not a Jesuit invention, the Society extensively adopted and systematized it within casuistry—the case-specific application of ethical principles—particularly after the Council of Trent's emphasis on frequent confession and pastoral accommodation, which necessitated practical resolutions for penitents facing doubtful obligations. Jesuit theologians like Luis Molina and Gabriel Vázquez defended probabilism as enabling confessors to navigate ethical ambiguities without undue rigor, prioritizing conscience formation over inflexible prohibitions. This approach contrasted sharply with Jansenist advocacy for tutiorism, which demanded adherence to the safer, stricter opinion in cases of doubt, often resulting in and reduced sacramental participation. Jesuits argued that such rigidity ignored human frailty and the complexity of real-world decisions, offering instead a flexible framework rooted in equitable interpretation of divine and . Proponents viewed it as pastorally efficacious, allowing adaptation to diverse cultural and situational contexts while upholding core prohibitions, though critics contended it veered toward by equating mere scholarly probability with moral safety. Extreme laxist interpretations, however, provoked backlash, exemplified by Spanish Jesuit Antonio Escobar y Mendoza's Summula casuum conscientiae (1627), which cataloged thousands of casuistic opinions, some permitting actions like dueling or usury under attenuated "probable" justifications supported by prior authorities. Blaise Pascal's Lettres provinciales (1656–1657), written pseudonymously from a Jansenist perspective, satirized these via direct quotations, portraying Jesuit casuistry as sophistic evasion that eroded moral absolutes and public trust in confessional integrity. Such polemics amplified perceptions of doctrinal looseness, fostering scandals that, alongside political factors, intensified ecclesiastical scrutiny and contributed to the Society's reputational vulnerabilities by the 18th century, despite defenses emphasizing probabilism's alignment with Tridentine pastoral realism over abstract severity.

Exclusionary Policies and Ancestral Restrictions

In 1593, the Fifth General Congregation of the Society of Jesus enacted statutes excluding candidates with Jewish or Muslim ancestry from admission to the , regardless of generational distance or prior . This decree, promulgated under Superior General Claudio Acquaviva amid pressures from Spanish authorities, mirrored Iberian laws designed to bar conversos (Jewish converts) and moriscos (Muslim converts) from institutions due to fears of or Islamic . In the Portuguese provinces, analogous restrictions were adopted, prohibiting New Christians—defined as those with documented Jewish lineage within five generations—from entering Jesuit ranks, as evidenced by provincial directives aligning with Lisbon's statutes. These measures were confined to initial entry and vows, exempting professed members already in the Society, including prominent early conversos like Diego Laínez, Loyola's successor. Proponents, including Acquaviva's administration, rationalized the policy as a pragmatic defense against infiltration, pointing to records of networks accused of undermining Catholic through feigned loyalty—such as the 1580s Portuguese cases where New Christians allegedly maintained Judaizing synagogues under Christian guise. This reflected causal suspicions rooted in the 1492-1497 expulsions and forced baptisms, where empirical patterns of among elites fueled distrust of ancestral reliability over professed faith. Opponents, such as Jesuit García Girón de Alarcón, countered that the statutes embodied discriminatory inconsistency, contradicting the order's foundational openness to diverse recruits and Loyola's explicit rejection of blood-based barriers in his 1540s constitutions. The restrictions persisted through the 18th-century suppression and into the 19th-century restoration, with reform efforts like Fernando de Valdés's 1632 treatise failing to repeal them amid entrenched Iberian customs. Full abrogation occurred in 1946, prompted by global scrutiny of racial exclusion post-World War II, though earlier 19th-century papal pressures had softened enforcement in non-Iberian provinces.

Modern Theological Heterodoxies and Internal Divisions

Following the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), the Society of Jesus experienced deepening internal divisions between a progressive wing emphasizing adaptation to modern culture and a traditionalist faction prioritizing doctrinal fidelity, with the former gaining dominance in leadership and institutions. This schism manifested in theological deviations from the , such as ambiguities on core doctrines, contributing to a causal erosion of as evidenced by public statements from high-ranking Jesuits. In August 2019, Jesuit Superior General asserted in an interview with the magazine Tempi that "the exists as a symbolic reality," rejecting the personal existence of as a , directly contradicting the Catechism's teaching that " was at first a good angel, made by : 'The and the other demons were indeed created naturally good by , but they became by their own doing.'" This view echoed Sosa's earlier 2017 remarks to El Mundo, framing the as a symbolic figure for rather than a real entity, prompting rebuttals from exorcists like Father Sante Babolin, who affirmed 's objective existence. Similar heterodoxies appeared in Jesuit treatments of sexuality, where figures like Father , S.J., advocated for pastoral ambiguities toward , suggesting teaching on sexual behavior requires revision since the term "" postdated traditional formulations, diverging from the Catechism's condemnation of homosexual acts as intrinsically disordered. Jesuit publications and conferences have amplified syncretistic elements, blending with indigenous rituals—such as during the 2019 Amazon Synod, where Jesuit-influenced events featured figures in settings—raising concerns of doctrinal compromise over evangelization. Papal interventions highlighted these issues; in 1982, Pope St. John Paul II issued a correction to the Jesuits via Cardinal Ratzinger, critiquing their "theological drift" and urging fidelity to , yet implementation lagged, as progressive influences persisted. Surveys of U.S. Jesuits reveal widespread divergence, with many endorsing views on moral issues at odds with the , correlating with vocational collapse: membership fell from over 17,200 in 2013 to approximately 14,000 by 2024, a decline exceeding 18% in a decade, attributed by insiders to heterodox emphases on over supernatural focus. This erosion has exacerbated schisms, with traditionalist Jesuits marginalized while progressive stances alienate potential recruits seeking doctrinal clarity.

Persecutions, Martyrdom, and Rescue Efforts

Reformation-Era and Counter-Reformation Conflicts

The Society of Jesus emerged in 1540 as a direct response to the , committing its members to rigorous , zeal, and of Catholic , which precipitated clashes across and beyond during the . Jesuits undertook clandestine missions into Protestant territories, prioritizing orthodoxy over safety, often resulting in capture, , and execution as heretics under secular laws enforcing religious uniformity. This causal dedication to reconversion—rooted in vows of obedience to the —contrasted with Protestant critiques portraying Jesuit tactics as subversive intrigue, though empirical records emphasize the order's sacrificial engagements over alleged aggression. In , Elizabethan statutes criminalized Catholic priesthood, targeting Jesuits as threats to the Protestant settlement; between 1580 and 1603, at least 25 Jesuits were executed, exemplifying the regime's systematic suppression. , ordained in 1578 and dispatched to in 1580, evaded capture while composing Decem Rationes to debate tenets publicly, before his arrest in July 1581, repeated tortures on the , and martyrdom on December 1, 1581, via , , and at —his remains dismembered and displayed as deterrence. Similar ordeals afflicted companions like Alexander Briant and Ralph Sherwin, hanged alongside Campion, highlighting Jesuits' willingness to infiltrate hostile domains despite papal warnings of peril. Jesuit missions in non-European theaters amplified these conflicts, as initial evangelization successes provoked backlash; in , where Jesuits had established footholds since Francis Xavier's 1549 arrival, Toyotomi Hideyoshi's 1587 edict banning culminated in the February 5, 1597, crucifixion of 26 faithful at Nagasaki's Nishizaka Hill, including Jesuit novice , a native impaled alive while proclaiming from the . This event, blending Jesuit and Franciscan efforts, marked the onset of intensified persecutions that claimed over 200 Japanese Christians by 1600, with Jesuits bearing disproportionate risks due to their vanguard role. Amid Europe's Wars of Religion (1562–1648), Jesuits fortified Catholic resistance in , the , and , preaching against and while educating , yet faced reprisals in Huguenot strongholds and imperial skirmishes. Beatification records tally 67 Jesuits martyred in these post-Reformation upheavals, predominantly French, for refusing recantation amid civil strife—evidence of doctrinal fidelity amid chaos, though Protestant polemics decried their involvement as fueling sectarian violence. These sacrifices, numbering in the hundreds for the era per order annals, empirically validated Jesuits' self-conception as "soldiers of Christ," prioritizing eternal truths over temporal accommodation.

Nazi Persecution and Holocaust Interventions

The Nazi regime viewed the Society of Jesus with particular suspicion due to its supranational structure, emphasis on papal obedience, and historical associations with intellectual resistance, leading to targeted persecution across occupied . From 1933 onward, German Jesuits faced arrests, property seizures, and dissolution attempts, with the monitoring sermons and publications for anti-regime content. By war's end, approximately 152 Jesuits had perished as victims of Nazi actions, including 82 killed directly during and 43 who died in concentration camps from maltreatment or execution. Prominent cases illustrate this opposition. , a Jesuit and chaplain who lost a leg in combat, openly denounced Nazi ideology from pulpits, warning of its incompatibility with ; arrested repeatedly from 1939, he endured imprisonment in Dachau and other sites until health collapse, dying on November 1, 1945, from complications of captivity. , another Jesuit, participated in the resistance group, authoring critiques of ; implicated in the July 20, 1944, plot against Hitler, he was arrested, tortured, and hanged on February 2, 1945, at , leaving behind prison writings on spiritual resilience amid tyranny. Amid such risks, individual Jesuits engaged in discreet rescue efforts for , often leveraging networks of schools, residences, and false documents, though institutional directives prioritized survival to avoid mass reprisals against and . In , Chaillet, a Jesuit theologian, founded Amitié Chrétienne in 1941 to aid targeted by Vichy statutes; he infiltrated detention camps, smuggled children to safety, provided legal aid and shelter, and distributed forged papers, saving dozens directly while coordinating broader networks despite his own arrest and internment. In Italy, Jesuit properties like Villa Mondragone near sheltered Jewish children during the 1943 German occupation, with eight priests arrested by the SS for hiding hundreds; such actions reflected personal moral imperatives but were constrained by fears of escalating Nazi retaliation against Catholic institutions already under pressure. These interventions highlight a pattern of ad hoc heroism amid systemic caution: verifiable rescues numbered in the hundreds via Jesuit channels in and , yet the order's , confronting dissolution threats and the execution of resisters like Delp, avoided public confrontation to preserve operational capacity for aid, a rooted in the observed Nazi pattern of punishing collective defiance with intensified purges. Critiques of broader Catholic silence, including Jesuit-aligned diplomacy under Eugenio Pacelli (who received detailed reports from German Jesuits by 1942), underscore tensions between empirical rescue networks and strategic restraint to avert worse outcomes, though prioritizes documented individual acts over unsubstantiated institutional narratives.

Communist Regimes and 20th-Century Oppressions

In the , Jesuits encountered systematic persecution after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, as the atheist regime targeted religious orders to eliminate perceived threats to state ideology. , S.J., exemplified this toll when arrested in 1941 on fabricated espionage charges; he endured 23 years in Siberian gulags and prisons, including 15 in , before release in 1963 via . This reflected broader anti-clerical policies that closed churches, confiscated properties, and imprisoned or executed thousands of , with defectors like those interviewed post-Cold War attesting to deliberate campaigns eradicating monastic life to enforce materialist doctrine. China's communist government, upon establishing the in 1949, escalated suppression through "anti-imperialist" drives, expelling nearly all foreign Jesuits by 1954; of the approximately 50 Province Jesuits active there from 1928, most departed amid arrests and forced labor, with local members driven underground or imprisoned. Quantitative estimates from records indicate over 800 foreign priests, including Jesuits, expelled or detained in the early 1950s, as regimes prioritized "" to sever ties and promote self-reliant patriotic associations over loyalist networks. Across , communist states imprisoned hundreds of Jesuits in labor camps and psychiatric wards for refusing state control over and sacraments; in , Sigitas Tamkevičius, S.J., served six years from 1983 for founding the Chronicle of the , a publication documenting abuses. In , Slovak Jesuits faced execution or internment post-1948 coup, with underground networks sustaining sacraments amid . During Hungary's uprising against Soviet-imposed rule, which demanded religious freedoms, reprisals included clergy executions, though Jesuits persisted clandestinely, mirroring patterns in where figures like Gjon Fausti, S.J., were shot in 1946 for resisting totalitarian edicts. In Vietnam, post-1975 unification under , Jesuits joined thousands of in re-education camps, with reports of over 1,000 detained by 1980; martyrdoms and forced renunciations decimated visible structures, yet underground cells preserved formation and aid, as defectors' accounts from the 1980s boat people detailed coerced and familial surveillance enforcing anti-clerical isolation. Jesuits contributed to resistances akin to Poland's , operating secret seminaries and moral support networks that undermined regime legitimacy, with Polish Jesuits influencing anti-communist education at institutions like Kraków's, fostering generational opposition documented in post-1989 archives. Overall, across these regimes, thousands of religious faced incarceration—defector testimonies and regime files reveal causal mechanisms like quotas for "unreliable" elements, prioritizing eradication of orders like the Jesuits for their international obedience and intellectual resistance.

Notable Jesuits and Legacy Figures

Founders, Reformers, and Theologians

(1491–1556), born Íñigo López de Oñaz y Loyola in the region of , established the foundational principles of the Society of Jesus through his , a structured retreat program emphasizing discernment and obedience to God's will, which became central to and doctrinal discipline. After a military career ended by cannonball injuries at the 1521 siege of , Ignatius experienced a , leading him to pilgrimage and study theology in , where he gathered initial companions. On August 15, 1534, Ignatius and six companions—including and —professed vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience at , , laying the groundwork for the order's commitment to papal obedience and missionary zeal. The Regimini militantis Ecclesiae, issued by on September 27, 1540, formally approved the Society of Jesus, initially limiting membership to 60 but confirming its unique structure without traditional monastic elements like communal prayer, prioritizing mobility and education to counter Protestant challenges. (1506–1546), the first ordained Jesuit priest in 1534, exemplified early reforming efforts through his gentle approach to reconciling Catholics and Protestants in and , conducting confessions, preaching, and directing that reinforced Tridentine orthodoxy amid divisions. Francis Xavier (1506–1552), another co-founder, extended Jesuit influence through evangelization in Asia, reportedly baptizing hundreds of thousands—traditional accounts claim over 700,000, though modern estimates suggest around 30,000—establishing missions in , , and beyond, which demonstrated the order's adaptive methods while upholding Catholic sacramental essentials against local . Later theologians like (1542–1621), a Jesuit cardinal, bolstered doctrinal firmness via his Disputationes de controversiis fidei Christianae (1586–1593), a comprehensive apologetic defending decrees on scripture, tradition, sacraments, and papal authority against Protestant critiques, influencing education and .

Missionaries, Explorers, and Martyrs

Jesuit missionaries undertook extensive evangelization efforts in beginning in the mid-16th century, with arriving in , , in 1542 to establish missions among Portuguese settlers and local populations. Xavier's letters detail the causal difficulties of conversion, including linguistic barriers, entrenched Hindu customs, and resistance from pearl fishers whom he baptized en masse—up to 10,000 in a single month—yet noted high relapse rates due to superficial understanding and lack of follow-up instruction. His journeys extended to in 1549, where he adapted preaching to culture, achieving initial patronage before facing persecution. In southern , commenced the Madurai Mission in 1606, disguising himself as a sannyasi ascetic to appeal to elites averse to foreign influences. Nobili's diaries and reports emphasize causal strategies for , such as rejecting meat and European dress to argue Christianity's compatibility with purity rituals, yielding over 100 high-caste converts by 1610 despite scrutiny over perceived . Jesuit frontier work in Japan culminated in the martyrdom of 26 Catholics, including three Jesuits—Paul Miki, a seminarian, and brothers John Goto and James Kisai—crucified in on February 5, 1597, following Toyotomi Hideyoshi's edict against Christianity amid fears of Spanish invasion. Eyewitness accounts from Jesuit superiors describe the martyrs' procession with ears severed, their public professions of faith, and the crowd's mixed awe and hostility, underscoring persecution's role in galvanizing underground communities numbering 200,000 by 1600. In the Americas, arrived in , in 1610, dedicating four decades to ministering arriving African slaves, boarding ships to wash, feed, and catechize them in basic faith tenets using interpreters. Claver's records report baptizing 300,000 individuals, confronting causal horrors like disease and despair that hindered sustained conversion, while advocating post-arrival care to counter owners' exploitation.

Scientists, Educators, and Intellectuals

The Jesuit emphasis on , rooted in the order's foundational commitment to teaching as outlined in the 1540 papal bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiae, led to the establishment of over 300 colleges and universities by the early 17th century, training elites in , , and . Under Superior General Claudio Acquaviva (1581–1615), the Ratio Studiorum was finalized and promulgated in 1599, standardizing a that balanced classical languages, , and Aristotelian logic with empirical observation in physics and astronomy, fostering disciplined inquiry compatible with Catholic doctrine. This framework influenced models and produced scholars who integrated faith with scientific progress, challenging retrospective claims of inevitable conflict between religion and emerging sciences. Jesuit mathematicians like Christoph Clavius (1538–1612) exemplified this synthesis; as professor at the , he collaborated on the 1582 reform, correcting the system's 10-day drift based on precise astronomical calculations, which was adopted worldwide by 1752. In the , (1711–1787) proposed a unified theory of matter as point centers of force in his 1758 Theoria philosophiae naturalis, anticipating field theories and atomic models without invoking , thus preserving causal realism aligned with theistic principles. These contributions arose from Jesuit observatories and colleges, which by 1700 spanned Europe, Asia, and the , promoting observational data over speculative metaphysics. In , Angelo Secchi (1818–1878), director of the from 1855, developed in the 1860s, classifying stars into spectral types (e.g., Type I for white stars like Sirius) using analysis of light, laying groundwork for modern and demonstrating empirical harmony between cosmic order and divine creation. Jesuit naturalists such as José de Acosta (1539–1600) documented geography and in his 1590 Historia natural y moral de las Indias, attributing environmental variations to rather than divine whim, enabling causal explanations that prefigured while rooted in teleological . This legacy counters theses by evidencing institutional support for data-driven discovery, with Jesuits comprising a disproportionate share of early modern astronomers and educators who viewed scientific laws as manifestations of rational divine intent.

Modern Leaders and Influencers

Pedro Arrupe, who served as the 28th Superior General of the Society of Jesus from 1965 to 1983, redirected the order toward a greater emphasis on social justice, coining the phrase "faith that does justice" to integrate Gospel imperatives with advocacy for the poor and marginalized. Under his leadership, the Jesuits established the Jesuit Refugee Service in 1980 to aid displaced persons, reflecting a post-Vatican II pivot toward active engagement in global inequities, with over 200,000 refugees assisted annually by the 21st century. Arrupe's 1973 address "Men for Others" urged Jesuit education to prioritize justice formation, influencing curricula at institutions like Georgetown University, though critics argue this shift diluted traditional spiritual formation in favor of activism. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a Jesuit paleontologist and theologian active in the early until his death in 1955, exerted posthumous influence through his synthesis of evolutionary and , proposing concepts like the —a collective human consciousness—and the as Christ's cosmic fulfillment. His works, such as (1955), faced scrutiny, with restrictions imposed from 1924 to 1937 and a 1962 monitum from the Holy Office citing ambiguities and errors in reconciling with doctrine, yet they inspired later ecological and process theologies. Teilhard's directional view of as purposeful rather than random has been praised for bridging faith and but critiqued for pantheistic undertones that subordinate orthodox revelation to speculative cosmology. Jorge Mario Bergoglio, elected in 2013 as the first Jesuit pontiff, drew on his formation as Jesuit provincial in (1973–1979) to emphasize , , and , evident in the 2015 Laudato Si', which advocates "integral ecology" linking human to planetary care and cites empirical data on impacts like a 1.1°C global temperature rise since pre-industrial levels. The document, influenced by Jesuit social teachings, calls for systemic economic shifts to address and degradation, impacting policy in over 30 Catholic dioceses committing to by 2016. Detractors, including conservative outlets, contend this reflects a progressive tilt, prioritizing secular over doctrinal clarity on issues like migration and family, with Francis's tenure seeing a 20% rise in Jesuit focus on "frontiers" like per General Congregation 36. Arturo Sosa Abascal, elected the 31st Superior General in 2016, continues this trajectory from , promoting discernment amid cultural peripheries and integral ecology assemblies that convened over 100 delegates in 2025 to address and migration. Sosa's leadership has steered the —numbering about 14,000 members in 2023—toward dialogue with modernity, including endorsements of , though internal voices question if such adaptations risk diluting Ignatian rigor amid declining vocations in the West.

References

  1. [1]
    Our Founder, Our History - Jesuits.org
    And on September 27, 1540, Pope Paul III officially recognized the Society of Jesus as a religious order with Ignatius as its first Father General. The First ...
  2. [2]
    History of the Society of Jesus - Jesuits
    In 1540, St. Ignatius of Loyola founded the Society of Jesus along with an energetic group of companions; their goal was to help people find God in their lives.
  3. [3]
    The Jesuits
    We are the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order of priests and brothers founded half a millennium ago by the soldier-turned-mystic Ignatius Loyola.
  4. [4]
    About the Jesuits - Marquette University
    The Jesuits, or Society of Jesus, began in the 1530s, focusing on active ministry and education, and are the church's largest male religious order.
  5. [5]
    Our history | The Society of Jesus - Jesuits.global
    The Jesuits began with missionary work, focused on education, were suppressed in 1773, restored in 1814, and have grown globally since.
  6. [6]
    How the First Jesuits Became Involved in Education - Stories
    Nov 29, 2016 · The Jesuits also appropriated the older institution of learning--the university. This too gave them a special role in European culture, of which ...
  7. [7]
    History of Jesuits in the Sciences | Saint Joseph's University
    From the very beginning, Jesuits were an order of missionaries, sent out to work in the larger world. Just a year after St. Ignatius founded the order, one of ...Missing: key characteristics
  8. [8]
    https://brill.com/downloadpdf/display/book/9789004382367/BP000001.pdf
  9. [9]
    Sad anniversary: the Pontifical Suppression of the Society of Jesus
    Jul 21, 2023 · The Jesuits opposed the provisions of the treaty, and, from 1755 on, they were imprisoned and deported to Portugal, from where many of them were ...
  10. [10]
    [PDF] Jesuit Suppression and Restoration 1773-1814 - Creighton University
    On July 21, 1773 with great reluctance, Pope Clement XIV signed the brief. Dominus ac Redemptor which dissolved the Society of Jesus throughout the world. The ...
  11. [11]
    The unlikely story of how the Jesuits were suppressed (and then ...
    Jul 22, 2014 · For it was Pius VII who, on Aug. 7, 1814, restored the Society of Jesus, some four decades after its suppression by Pope Clement XIV.
  12. [12]
    St. Ignatius of Loyola - Gonzaga University
    Inigo de Loyola was born in 1491 in Azpeitia in the Basque province of Guipuzcoa in northern Spain. He was the youngest of thirteen children.
  13. [13]
    On this day 504 years ago, Ignatius was struck by a cannonball ...
    May 20, 2025 · On this day 504 years ago, Ignatius was struck by a cannonball during the Battle of Pamplona, marking the beginning of his spiritual conversion.
  14. [14]
    The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Autobiography of St. Ignatius ...
    This autobiography of St. Ignatius is the groundwork of all the great lives of him that have been written. Bartoli draws from it, Genelli develops it, the ...
  15. [15]
    Saint Ignatius and the Spiritual Exercises - Cova de Manresa
    In May 1521, while defending the city of Pamplona, ​​he was seriously injured in one leg. During his recovery, and compelled by some readings, he decided to ...
  16. [16]
    Ignatian Manresa | Cave of Saint Ignatius
    On March 25, 1522, Ignatius of Loyola descended from Montserrat to Manresa. He settled and lived here for eleven months. The stay of Saint Ignatius in Manresa ...
  17. [17]
    CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Ignatius Loyola - New Advent
    On 15 August, 1534, they took the vows of poverty and chastity at Montmartre ... Ignatius and his companions, undismayed, agreed to offer up 4000 ...
  18. [18]
    #OTD in 1534 Ignatius of Loyola and six Jesuit companions: Pedro ...
    Aug 15, 2024 · OTD in 1534 Ignatius of Loyola and six Jesuit companions: Pedro Fabro, Francisco Javier, Diego Laínez, Simón Rodrigues, Alfonso Salmerón and ...
  19. [19]
    The Montmartre Vow and the Body of Christ | Ignatian Year
    Aug 15, 2021 · Kolvenbach focuses on the vow at Montmartre on 15 August 1534 and the Body of Christ. ... companions found Ignatius in the throes of death.
  20. [20]
    Ignatius and the Companions of Jesus - Catholic Insight
    Jul 31, 2025 · The merry band took their first vows at the Church of Saint Peter on Montmartre in Paris, on the solemnity of the Assumption, August 15th, 1534 ...
  21. [21]
    Saint Francis Xavier | The Society of Jesus - Jesuits.global
    The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540 by Saint Ignatius Loyola and his companions. The mission of the Jesuits is a mission of justice and reconciliation, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
  22. [22]
    Five Chapters (1539) - Portal to Jesuit Studies - Boston College
    The document serves the first foundational document of what became the Society of Jesus, stating the key purposes of the proposed religious order.Missing: drafting | Show results with:drafting
  23. [23]
    [PDF] The Formula of the Institute Six years before the ... - Squarespace
    Ignatius and his first companions in 1539 as a kind of charter or mission statement for the new Society of Jesus. It was inserted with minor revisions into ...
  24. [24]
    Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus approved by Julius III
    Chapter 1. Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the cross in our Society, which we desire to be designated by the name of ...Missing: drafting 1539
  25. [25]
    The First Jesuits' Vow of Obedience (1539)
    The first Jesuits' vow of obedience, made in 1539, was a vow to enter the Society if confirmed by the pope, with the vow being for the Society's permanence.
  26. [26]
    The Jesuits are approved | Quote of the Day | Christian History Institute
    Pope Paul III formally approved the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) on this day, 27 September 1540, in the Bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae. Originally he ...<|separator|>
  27. [27]
    [PDF] Papal Documents from the Early Years of the Society of Jesus in ...
    Pope Paul III, Regimini Militantis Ecclesiae,. September 27, 15401. [The founding bull of the Society of Jesus, containing the Formula of the Institute.] Paul ...
  28. [28]
    Formula the Institute (1540) - Portal to Jesuit Studies - Boston College
    It was inserted with minor revisions into the 1540 bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiae, in which Pope Paul III formally approved the foundation of the Society ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
  29. [29]
    St. Ignatius History | Mission Integration - Loyola University Chicago
    Early Life of St. Ignatius. Inigo de Loyola was born in 1491 in Azpeitia in the Basque province of Guipuzcoa in northern Spain. He was the youngest of thirteen ...
  30. [30]
    [PDF] Ignacio de Loyola. On September 27, 1540, Pope
    1541. 04/19. On the advice of his confessor, Fra Teodosio da Lodi, a. Franciscan, Ignatius accepted the second election which had selected him to be the first ...
  31. [31]
    [PDF] Jesuit Schools and Universities in Europe, 1548–1773 - OAPEN Home
    Two Jesuits have written a very detailed history of the Society in Italy but ... preaching, hearing confessions, missions to the countryside and remote parts.<|control11|><|separator|>
  32. [32]
    https://brill.com/display/book/9789004510289/BP000023.xml
  33. [33]
    What Are the Spiritual Exercises? - IgnatianSpirituality.com
    The Structure of the Exercises. Ignatius organized the Exercises into four “weeks.” These are not seven-day weeks, but stages on a journey to spiritual freedom ...
  34. [34]
    [PDF] THE TEXT OF THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES OF SAINT IGNATIUS
    Four Weeks are taken for the following Exercises, corresponding to the four parts into which they are divided. 2That is, the First Week is devoted to the ...
  35. [35]
    The Spiritual Exercises - USA East Province
    They are organized into four sections or “weeks.” These are steps along the path of spiritual freedom and collaboration with God's activity in the world. Here ...
  36. [36]
    https://scepterpublishers.org/blogs/scepter-blog-corner/14-rules-for-the-discernment-of-spirits-by-st-ignatius-of-loyola
  37. [37]
    Rules for Discernment - IgnatianSpirituality.com
    Ignatius Loyola summarized his approach to discernment of spirits in 2 sets of Rules for Discernment which he included in the Spiritual Exercises.
  38. [38]
    The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola: Rules:...
    First Rule. The first: It is proper to God and to His Angels in their movements to give true spiritual gladness and joy, taking away all sadness and disturbance ...
  39. [39]
    [PDF] Becoming a Jesuit
    Dec 17, 2020 · graduation and retention rates, undergraduate ... The Spiritual Exercises are a central tool in Ignatian spirituality and Jesuit formation.
  40. [40]
    Conversion Through the Spiritual Exercises of St Ignatius of Loyola
    Jan 12, 2024 · Howard Sacks (1979) conducted an empirical study of 42 Jesuit novices undergoing the Spiritual Exercises and found that the experience had a “ ...
  41. [41]
    (PDF) THE TRANSFORMATIVE NATURE OF THE SPIRITUAL ...
    This study validates the proposal that the Spiritual Exercises bring about a transformation described in terms of a radical change in the meaning-system of the ...
  42. [42]
    [PDF] The Conversion of Jesuits Through the Dynamic of the Spiritual ...
    empirical study that involved direct engagement with Jesuits about their experience of the Exercises. With this article I wish to share with those who give the ...
  43. [43]
    Jesuits - Christian Classics Ethereal Library
    Their obligation to go without questioning wherever the pope or the general may direct and to devote themselves unsparingly to the accomplishment of what ...
  44. [44]
    Ignatius on Obedience (1553) - Portal to Jesuit Studies
    This letter is the fullest of Ignatius's several treatments of the subject of obedience. It urges the crucial importance of obedience for Jesuits.Missing: vow balance conscience
  45. [45]
    Perinde ac Cadaver | Commonweal Magazine
    Feb 21, 2008 · Ignatius wanting our obedience to be perinde ac cadaver, like a dead body. Here is part of an interesting post about this: In the process of ...
  46. [46]
    What Distinguishes the Jesuits? - America Magazine
    Jan 15, 2007 · In the constitutions he composed for the Society, Ignatius repeats the formula “ad maiorem Dei gloriam” in the same or similar words 376 times.
  47. [47]
    [PDF] What Magis Really Means and Why It Matters - Xavier University
    discernment about the magis? Not necessarily. A common misconception is that discernment is about predicting the future. Imagine a man who discerns that he ...
  48. [48]
    Ignatius's Balance - Ignatian Spirituality
    Jan 29, 2013 · A purely mechanical obedience without regard for the movements of the Spirit and a purely individualistic reliance on the Spirit without regard ...
  49. [49]
    Free Will and Luis de Molina, SJ - Jesuits.org
    De Molina argued that God achieves his will not by forcing or predestining anyone to do or be anything. Rather he simply arranges events so that his creatures ...
  50. [50]
    [PDF] Predestination, Grace, and Free Will in intra-Jesuit Controversies ...
    This essay will address the dispute between the two Jesuits, in light of the evolution of the “politics of Grace” within the Society of Jesus – namely the.
  51. [51]
    The Jesuits and the reformers - Ministry Magazine
    The outcome of the Council of Trent, for the Catholic Church, was largely the result of a Jesuit influence, largely steeped in established, traditional ...
  52. [52]
    [PDF] 5-Knorn-Theological-Renewal-after-Council-of-Trent.pdf
    As part of the Catholic reform after the Council of Trent, the Jesuits Francisco de. Toledo, Gregorio de Valencia, and Gabriel Vázquez further developed the ...
  53. [53]
    https://oxfordre.com/education/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-1941
  54. [54]
    [PDF] Education, confessional conflict, and the Catholic mission in ...
    Nov 13, 2023 · 15 They did not simply train Catholic students to combat Protestant heresy. ... 15 John O'Malley, 'From the 1599 Ratio Studiorum to the present: a ...
  55. [55]
    Bellarmine – Champion of Rome - Protestant Truth Society
    ' Bellarmine began by teaching his students that 'the sum and substance of Christianity itself' was Papal primacy, and that Satan 'goes to work with a certain ...
  56. [56]
    Was Robert Bellarmine Ahead of His Time? - Crisis Magazine
    Sep 26, 2014 · The democratic origin of temporal political legitimacy is an essential feature of Bellarmine's argument for papal spiritual supremacy, since it ...
  57. [57]
    Jesuit Formation
    The formation of a Jesuit is a journey that can last more than fifteen years and encompasses five key stages.
  58. [58]
    Called to Labor with God: A Jesuit's Journey of Formation
    novitiate, first studies, regency, theology and tertianship — each designed to ...<|separator|>
  59. [59]
    A Decade of Devotion: The challenging and rewarding process of ...
    Dec 20, 2020 · Ten years is typically what people think of for Jesuit formation. First studies is followed by regency, where Jesuits spend two to three years ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
  60. [60]
    Taking on the Vocation Crisis & Restoring Public Perception of the ...
    Aug 11, 2025 · Today that average age is 63. This sharp increase highlights not only a decline in the number of men entering the priesthood, but also the aging ...
  61. [61]
    Becoming a Jesuit - Vocations - Campus Ministry - Boston College
    A Jesuit's formation begins in the novitiate, where he spends two years learning how to pray, how to live in community and about the Society of Jesus. Novices ...
  62. [62]
    What is Tertianship? Why do the Jesuits have this step of formation?
    Apr 23, 2023 · There are five stages of formation for Jesuits. The first is the Novitiate, which lasts for 2 years, wherein men experience the Spiritual ...
  63. [63]
    The Making of a Jesuit - IgnatianSpirituality.com
    Now initial formation is complete—Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam. Reprinted with permission from a brochure by Fr. Patrick Fairbanks, SJ, Former Vocations Director ...
  64. [64]
    The Making of a Jesuit | Article - Seattle Preparatory School
    Jun 16, 2022 · Novitiate: 2 years · Regency: 2 - 3 years · The regent devotes 2-3 years to full-time apostolic ministry with supervision, often in a Jesuit high ...
  65. [65]
    The steps of Jesuit formation
    From the Novitiate to Final Vows, the formation of a Jesuit is a journey of studies and apostolic work that can last up to twenty years.Missing: tertianship | Show results with:tertianship
  66. [66]
    New Survey of Men Being Ordained to the Priesthood Underscores ...
    Apr 15, 2024 · The average age at ordination was 34 years old. Since 1999, the average age was 35 and ranged between 33 and 37. Most respondents are White ...<|separator|>
  67. [67]
    What my next stage of Jesuit formation means to me (and to America ...
    May 18, 2023 · Ignatius' definition of this period as the “third probation.” (First probation happens at the very beginning of novitiate; second probation ...
  68. [68]
    A Typical Pattern of Formation | Jesuit Conference of Asia Pacific
    Learn about the typical stages of Jesuit formation—from novitiate to final vows—shaped by prayer, study, and mission.
  69. [69]
    Prominent Jesuit: The Society of Jesus is in 'profound decline'
    May 24, 2024 · In 2013, there were more than 17,200 Jesuits, which means that in just over 10 years, the Society of Jesus has decreased by more than 3,000 ...
  70. [70]
    Does "the Black Pope" Wield the True Power in the Vatican?
    They called him “the black pope” because he wore the Jesuits' black clerical garb, in contrast to the real pope, who wore white and became known as “the white ...
  71. [71]
    The Pope, black and white - MondayVatican
    Oct 24, 2016 · The General of the Jesuits is called the “Black Pope”, because his term of office lasts for the remainder of his life, and because he has unlimited powers.
  72. [72]
    Superior General - Jesuits.org
    Father Arturo Sosa Abascal, SJ, of Venezuela, was elected the 31st Superior General of the Society of Jesus at the Jesuits' General Congregation 36 (GC 36) ...Missing: structure election
  73. [73]
    The Jesuits Meet to Elect a New Superior General — What's in Play
    Oct 7, 2016 · One requires an absolute majority to be elected; in this case, 107 votes. There is an explanation of the election procedure on the congregation ...Missing: structure | Show results with:structure
  74. [74]
    What is a Jesuit provincial?
    Jesuit provincials are appointed by the Superior General in Rome to serve six-year terms. Provincials oversee geographic units called provinces.
  75. [75]
    Structure of the Society - USA East Province
    Jesuit leaders from all countries meet from time to time for what are called General Congregations, often to elect a new Superior General and address important ...Missing: election | Show results with:election
  76. [76]
    The Jesuits After the Restoration (1814-1912) - New Advent
    Three members of the suppressed Society who were in Mexico at the time of the Restoration formed a nucleus for its re-establishment there in 1816. In 1820 ...<|separator|>
  77. [77]
    General Congregations of the Society of Jesus - Xavier University
    General Congregations are the supreme legislative body of the Society of Jesus consisting of major ("provincial") superiors and locally elected representatives.
  78. [78]
    Father General: Out of Habit - America Magazine
    Mar 8, 2008 · His idea was that the Jesuits should wear the dress of a “priest in good standing” in the locale. The Constitutions note that the clothing we ...
  79. [79]
    Jesuit cassock history for $200 please...
    May 23, 2009 · A distinctive Jesuit habit: a long black cassock tied together with a black cincture or belt (as opposed to the diocesan version with its long row of buttons.)Missing: II | Show results with:II
  80. [80]
    The Jesuit Habit - Orbis Catholicus Secundus
    Oct 8, 2009 · What was in fashion in Rome in the XVI century was retained by the Jesuits as an unofficial habit, although they were free to wear the clerical ...
  81. [81]
    CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: The Jesuits (The Society of Jesus)
    The Society of Jesus is a religious order founded by Saint Ignatius Loyola. Designated by him "The Company of Jesus" to indicate its true leader and its ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
  82. [82]
    In Priestly Fashion: Jesuit Cassocks in the University Archives
    Many of those Jesuits are wearing a Jesuit-style cassock. These frocks are distinct from the traditional Roman Catholic cassock: whereas the Roman style has a ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
  83. [83]
    How Should a Jesuit Look? - Manresa Amigos - WordPress.com
    Apr 24, 2013 · A Jesuit gown. Black, calf-length, sleeveless, but with the distinctive “wings”. It is said to have been modelled on the academic dress current in the 16 th - ...
  84. [84]
    The Ignatian Examen - Jesuits.org
    The Examen is such a powerful prayer. In it, we're invited to encounter God, express gratitude for the gift and gifts of each day, and to commit to make up for ...
  85. [85]
    Poverty - Jesuits
    Jesuits view poverty as a safeguard of religious life, a test of their being, a way to serve the Gospel, and a counter-cultural witness to gratuity.
  86. [86]
    [PDF] Poverty in the Constitutions and Other Ignatian Sources - ISC Glasgow
    38 Avoiding extremes in material matters the Jesuit also avoids the extremes of 'levity' on the one hand and 'ostenta- tious gravity' on the other, both of ...Missing: dissipation | Show results with:dissipation
  87. [87]
    Saint Ignatius of Loyola - The Constitutions - Heritage History
    In 1547 Ignatius seriously undertook the drafting of the constitutions, and with the help of secretaries he accomplished the task in about two years. In the ...
  88. [88]
    Who was Francis Xavier? - Mission Identity
    Xavier ranks among the greatest missionaries in Christian history. Historians place the number of baptisms at roughly 30,000 people; lore cites numbers up to ...
  89. [89]
    Saint Francis Xavier and the Roots of Christianity in Japan
    Aug 27, 2015 · Arriving in Japan in 1549, Jesuit priest Francis Xavier played a key role in the early spread of Christianity in the country.
  90. [90]
    How many countries did St. Francis Xavier visit?
    Dec 3, 2021 · St. Francis set off for China (6) in April of 1552 but only made it as far as a Chinese island off the mainland.
  91. [91]
    Society of Jesus Celebrates Feast of St. Robert Bellarmine, SJ
    Sep 17, 2022 · St. Bellarmine spent the next 11 years teaching and writing “Disputations on the Controversies,” a three-volume defense of the Catholic faith ...
  92. [92]
    Bellarmine, Robert (1542–1621) - Jesuit Online Bibliography
    Bellarmine was a resolute opponent toward Protestantism and quickly became the leading apologist of the Catholic Church during the Counter-Reformation. As a ...
  93. [93]
    [PDF] The Jesuits in China - Creighton University
    In 1601, Matteo Ricci (1552-. 1610) gave the first mechanical clock to the Chinese emperor, and from then on elaborate timepieces figured prominently in Sino- ...Missing: achievements | Show results with:achievements<|control11|><|separator|>
  94. [94]
    Matteo Ricci, SJ (1552—1610) - IgnatianSpirituality.com
    Matteo Ricci, SJ, was a missionary to China who brought his mathematical and astronomical knowledge to China and adapted to Chinese culture.Missing: accommodation achievements
  95. [95]
    [PDF] The Missions of Paraguay - Latin American Studies
    The Guaraní thus “re- duced” in the missions found protection against the colonists' exploitation, against enslavement by the bandeirantes paulistas.
  96. [96]
    https://www.latinamericanstudies.org/paraguay/paraguay-missions.pdf
  97. [97]
    On the Economics of the Socialist Theocracy of the Jesuits in ...
    From 1609 to 1767 the Jesuits governed a “socialist theocracy” in Paraguay. Never more than 200 Jesuits managed a Guaraní Indian population of up to 150,000 ...<|separator|>
  98. [98]
    Jesuits Waged War for the Guaraní People - HistoryNet
    Jun 26, 2019 · (Perplexingly, while the Jesuits championed the Guaraní cause, they turned a blind eye to the enslavement of Africans, even owning slaves ...
  99. [99]
    Missionaries, human capital transmission, and economic ... - CEPR
    Oct 20, 2018 · This column argues that the 17th century Guarani Jesuit Missions had long-lasting positive effects on education and income.
  100. [100]
    https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/missionaries-human-capital-transmission-and-economic-persistence-south-america
  101. [101]
    Jesuits as Petitioners: Antonio Ruiz de Montoya and the Issue of ...
    Aug 7, 2023 · This article analyzes a series of petitions composed by Antonio Ruiz de Montoya in the late 1630s on behalf of Jesuit missions in Paraguay.
  102. [102]
    The North American Martyrs - Canadian Conference of Catholic ...
    Eight French missionaries became martyrs in North America in the 17th century, six Jesuits and two “donnés”, laymen who served the Jesuits.
  103. [103]
    About the Martyrs
    The martyrs which we honour today at Martyrs' Shrine (also known as the North American Martyrs) were Jesuit missionaries who had left their comfortable lives in ...
  104. [104]
    [PDF] The Jesuits in the Philippines: 1581-1959 - Archium Ateneo
    Jun 30, 2008 · HE first Jesuits to come to the Philippines arrived in. Manila on 17 September 1581. They were Father Anto- nio Sedeiio, the superior of the ...
  105. [105]
    [PDF] A Note on Jesuits and Philippine Languages, 1581-1900
    Jun 27, 2008 · natives, the Jesuit missionaries learned the native languages, trans- lated the catechism into the native languages while they taught.Missing: arts | Show results with:arts
  106. [106]
    Catholicism in the Philippines during the Spanish Colonial Period ...
    Jul 10, 2018 · The monastic presses also published grammar books to help priests learn the native languages in order to minister more effectively. These ...
  107. [107]
    Jesuits in Colonial Latin America - Oxford Bibliographies
    Feb 24, 2021 · The Jesuits have impacted the history of colonial Latin America as have few other religious orders. Founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola and a group of ...
  108. [108]
    https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0243.xml
  109. [109]
    The Chinese Rites Controversy and the Rule of Matteo Ricci
    Mar 4, 2023 · The controversy started as a theological dispute between the Jesuits, Franciscans, and Dominicans during their intersecting missions in China.Missing: risks | Show results with:risks
  110. [110]
    Rethinking the Rites Controversy: Kilian Stumpf's Acta Pekinensia ...
    Nov 9, 2020 · This article proposes that ostensibly religious disputes between Catholic orders consisted primarily of disagreements over ancient Chinese history.
  111. [111]
    The Jesuits and the Inculturation of the Catholic Church in ...
    This book provides an examination of the Catholic church's pastoral mission in Zimbabwe or of African Christians' efforts to inculturate the church. Ranging ...<|separator|>
  112. [112]
    [PDF] Inculturation and the Christian faith in Africa
    In this paper, the researchers argue that evangelization in post-missionary Africa, to be intensive and not just extensive, must imbibe the principles of.Missing: 1800 | Show results with:1800
  113. [113]
    https://ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_17_September_2012/25.pdf
  114. [114]
    [PDF] A-History-Rooted-in-Mission-Jesuit-Higher-Education-in-the-United ...
    With this in mind, the first Jesuit school was opened as Collegio di San Nicolo, in Messina, Italy in 1548. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, 35 schools ...
  115. [115]
    Our History - Pontifical Gregorian University
    Saint Ignatius of Loyola laid the foundations of the Pontifical Gregorian University, establishing, in 1551, a school of grammar, humanity and Christian ...
  116. [116]
    Education, Jesuit
    Twenty-one of today's 28 U.S. Jesuit colleges and universities were founded during that century. ... Our Founder, Our History · Protecting Children · Jesuit ...
  117. [117]
    The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum - Prime Matters
    In 1599, a plan was drawn up that standardized the educational ideals of the Jesuits. It was called the Ratio Studiorum, or the Official Plan of Studies for ...
  118. [118]
    [PDF] Jesuit Ratio Studiorum of 1599 - Educate Magis
    He should not under- take to explain any texts or authors not commonly in use, nor introduce innovations in his method of teaching or in the conduct of ...
  119. [119]
    [PDF] The Ratio Studiorum, the Making of Jesuit E
    The Ratio Studiorum also expresses Ignatius in another way: it reflects many of the characteristics and basic values that we find in the Spiritual Exercises.
  120. [120]
    The Jesuit Educational Tradition - Winter 2023 Stories
    Feb 28, 2024 · Jesuit education taught students their model of discernment: to seek God's glory in what they did. Those origins still influence what we do in ...Missing: loyalty | Show results with:loyalty
  121. [121]
    The Service of Faith and the Promotion of Justice in American Jesuit ...
    Nov 29, 2016 · " The Superior General of the Jesuits, Rev. Peter-Hans Kolvenbach, participated in this 2000 Justice conference at Santa Clara University ...
  122. [122]
    [PDF] Jesuit Secondary Education in America and the Challenge of Elitism
    This dissertation argues that the greater cultural and religious changes of the 1960s posed a fundamental challenge to Catholic elite education in the United ...
  123. [123]
    Christopher Clavius - The Society of Catholic Scientists
    Christopher Clavius joined the order in 1555 and in 1579 was commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII to oversee the reform of the calendar. The old Julian Calendar ...
  124. [124]
    Christopher Clavius - The Galileo Project | Science
    Clavius was the senior mathemtician on the commission for the reform of the calendar that led, in 1582, to the institution of the Gregorian calendar.
  125. [125]
    Early Observations of Sunspots: Scheiner and Galileo
    Oct 18, 2017 · The Jesuit C. Scheiner independently observed sunspots on the Sun and he announced his discovery at the end of 1611 in three letters under the ...
  126. [126]
    Christoph Scheiner (1575–1650) | High Altitude Observatory
    By his own account Scheiner began observing sunspots in March or April 1611, together with his then assistant J.B. Cysat. The first published account of his ...
  127. [127]
    Jesuits and Astronomy - Vatican Observatory
    Apr 29, 2021 · A number of Jesuits served as astronomers at the Roman College from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Christoph Grienberger (1564-1636) observed ...
  128. [128]
    Fr. Athanasius Kircher S.J. (1602-1680): Jesuit Polymath
    Apr 26, 2020 · One of the few areas of research that prompted travel in Kircher was that of geology. He was interested in the causes of volcanic eruptions, and ...
  129. [129]
    “Invisible Little Worms”: Athanasius Kircher's Study of the Plague
    Apr 22, 2020 · ... Kircher discovered microorganisms and was the first to propose the germ theory of contagion. 17th-century microscope illustration Scroll ...
  130. [130]
    Jesuit Scientific Activity in the Overseas Missions, 1540–1773
    Collec- tively, Jesuit missionaries made significant contributions to the fields of astronomy, car- tography, geography, natural history, ethnography, botany, ...<|separator|>
  131. [131]
    SEARCHING THE HEAVENS AND THE HISTORY OF JESUIT ...
    Jesuit astronomers were appointed directors of the imperial observatory in the years 1644—64 and 1669—1805 and they introduced the Copernican system to Chinese ...
  132. [132]
    Jesuits and the Vatican Observatory
    May 20, 2021 · After the suppression of the Jesuits, a Pontifical Observatory at the Roman College was formally established in 1774. Though it was not well ...
  133. [133]
    Francisco Suárez - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
    Jul 21, 2014 · Francisco Suárez (1548–1617) [1] was a highly influential philosopher and theologian of the Second Scholastic (or “Early Modern Scholasticism”).
  134. [134]
    CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Luis de Molina - New Advent
    Molina's chief contribution to the science of theology is the "Concordia", on which he spent thirty years of the most assiduous labour.
  135. [135]
    Francisco Suárez: Metaphysics as the Science of Real Beings
    In it he explores in detail the nature of law and of civil society. Suarez's views on international law (ius gentium) make him one of its founders. Suarez's ...
  136. [136]
    Salvation Outside the Church: The Development of a Doctrine
    May 26, 2023 · Among the Jesuits, Francisco Suarez (1548-1617) and Juan de Lugo (1583-1660) took positions similar to that of the later Soto, arguing that ...
  137. [137]
    CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Probabilism - New Advent
    Probabilism is the moral system which holds that, when there is question solely of the lawfulness or unlawfulness of an action, it is permissible to follow a ...
  138. [138]
    Probabilism - The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Jesuits
    Probabilism is a hermeneutical school of interpreting the moral law and was first articulated by the Spanish Dominican Bartolomé de Medina (1527–80), ...
  139. [139]
    Jesuit Relations | Encyclopedia.com
    27, 1540, when Pope Paul III, in Regimini militantis Ecclesiae, approved the ... 60 the number of members. This last restriction was withdrawn four ...<|separator|>
  140. [140]
    The Suppression of the Jesuits (1750-1773) - New Advent
    The Suppression of the Society was due to the same causes which in further development brought about the French Revolution. These causes varied somewhat in ...
  141. [141]
    Sacred Ambition, Secular Power: Jesuit Missions and the ... - MDPI
    On 3 September, 1759, José I issued a decree expelling the Jesuits from Portugal and its overseas dominions, labeling them “notorious rebels, traitors, ...
  142. [142]
    CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Reductions of Paraguay - New Advent
    Altogether the Jesuits founded approximately 100 Reductions, some of which were later destroyed; 46 were established between 1638 and 1768. Consequently, the ...
  143. [143]
    Dominus ac Redemptor (1773) - Portal to Jesuit Studies
    Pope Clement XIV suppressed the Society of Jesus on July 21, 1773. In the preceding decades, the Jesuits had suffered expulsions from the Catholic empires.Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
  144. [144]
    Jesuit Restoration - Part Three: The Survival of the Jesuits
    Aug 20, 2014 · King Frederick II of Prussia and Tsarina Catherine II of Russia, apprehensive that the Society's suppression would antagonise their new Polish ...Missing: preservation | Show results with:preservation
  145. [145]
    Jesuit Restoration - Part Four: The Restoration of the Society of Jesus
    Aug 27, 2014 · On 7 August 1814, Pius promulgated the bull Sollicitudo omnium Ecclesiarum, in which he commended to,. “the nobility of princes and temporal ...
  146. [146]
    [PDF] A Remnant and Rebirth: Pope Pius VII Brings the Jesuits Back
    Apr 4, 2014 · XIV suppressed it on July 21, 1773; Pius VII restored it on August 7, 1814. For two centuries no pope has reversed Pius VII's decision ...
  147. [147]
    Three Words That Changed Jesuit Education | Holy Cross Magazine
    "First, let me ask this question: Have we Jesuits educated you for justice?" On July 31, 1973, Rev. Pedro Arrupe, S.J., superior general of the Society of Jesus ...
  148. [148]
    Pedro Arrupe, S.J. - Ignatian Solidarity Network
    Feb 5, 2016 · Inspiring a Faith that Does Justice. Pedro Arrupe, S.J., was the 28th Superior General of the Society of Jesus, serving from 1965 – ...
  149. [149]
    Vatican Council II ("Vatican II" for short) - Jesuits.org
    Vatican II, convoked in 1962, aimed to bring the Church up to date, making it a world church, and incorporating biblical, liturgical, and lay movements.Missing: influence | Show results with:influence
  150. [150]
    Pedro Arrupe and the Faith that Does Justice
    Pedro Arrupe and the Faith that Does Justice. Dr. Kevin Burke, S.J., is Academic Dean and Associate Professor of Systematic Theology at the Jesuit School of ...
  151. [151]
    Council Struggles With Making Liturgy Understandable - Vatican II
    Oct 25, 2012 · The chief problem before the ecumenical council in the field of the liturgy is how to make the Church's worship an organic element in the ...
  152. [152]
    What Are Jesuits? What About Liberation Theology?
    Mar 14, 2013 · Partially because of their involvement in the liberally-associated movement, Jesuits have a reputation for being more progressive than the ...
  153. [153]
    JESUIT CHIEF DEFENDS LIBERATION THEOLOGY AND SOCIAL ...
    Oct 28, 1984 · Many have taken a leading role in advancing theologies of liberation, which attempt to apply church teachings to the problems of social justice ...
  154. [154]
    Defender of Liberation Theology
    Jul 15, 2020 · Arrupe's leadership of the Jesuits and his quiet but persistent defense of their involvement in liberation theology came to an end in 1981 ...
  155. [155]
    How JCU is maintaining its Jesuit Identity with fewer Jesuits
    Dec 14, 2023 · In the 1960s, the Jesuits numbers peaked at about 36,000 members worldwide. In 2008, their numbers were nearly half that–19,200. As of Jan ...Missing: ordinations statistics<|separator|>
  156. [156]
    Statistics of Catholicism's Decline in the U.S. | FSSPX News
    Jan 1, 1970 · In 1965, 3,559 young men were studying to become Jesuit priests. In 2000, the figure was 389. With the Christian Brothers, the situation is even ...
  157. [157]
    American Jesuits Are in a Free Fall, and the Crisis is Getting Worse
    Jul 29, 2016 · CARA reports that the number of Jesuits in the United States declined by more than half in just 25 years, from 4,823 in 1988 to 2,395 in 2013.
  158. [158]
    The Changing Jesuit Geography - Nineteen Sixty-four
    Feb 1, 2011 · This is in sharp contrast to the declines of the late 1960's and early 1970's that saw declines between 811 to 1,037 each year (unfortunately ...
  159. [159]
    Society of Jesus (Institute of Consecrated Life - Catholic-Hierarchy
    Statistics ; 2020, 11,049, 15,306 ; 2021, 10,721, 14,839 ; 2022, 10,432, 14,439 ; 2023, 10,270, 14,195 ...<|separator|>
  160. [160]
    COLUMN ONE : Jesuits Have Will, but Seek Way : Beset by ...
    Oct 12, 1992 · There were 8,377 American Jesuits in 1965, the peak year in modern times for membership in the United States and around the world, but only 4, ...
  161. [161]
    Europe: The Inexorable Decline of the Society of Jesus - FSSPX News
    Oct 24, 2019 · In Spain, out of nearly a thousand Jesuits, 10% are over 90 years old! Switzerland has only about fifty Jesuits, whose average age is about 67 ...
  162. [162]
    2025 Ordinands Archives - Jesuits.org
    The Society of Jesus is proud to announce the ordination of 22 new priests in the United States, Canada and Haiti.
  163. [163]
    Prominent Jesuit: The Society of Jesus is in 'profound decline'
    May 24, 2024 · The priest also noted that there are currently 13,995 Jesuits and lamented that “in a few years the society will have disappeared from several ...
  164. [164]
    Jesuit Insider Exposes Deep Crisis Within Society of Jesus, Calls for ...
    May 28, 2024 · A prominent Uruguayan Jesuit described in detail the many reasons why the Jesuits are in crisis and decline around the world and called for significant reform.
  165. [165]
    Jesuits have paid €7.4m in settlement costs to abuse survivors
    Nov 11, 2022 · Settlements have been agreed with 78 people alleging abuse, at a cost to the congregation of €7.4 million, which includes legal, counselling and medical costs.
  166. [166]
    Jesuits offer reparations to women allegedly abused by ex-Jesuit ...
    Mar 26, 2025 · ... allegations of abuse, arguing the claims were too old. Under pressure because of suspicions he had protected his fellow Jesuit, Francis ...
  167. [167]
    https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2025/03/26/jesuits-reparations-women-abused-marko-rupnik-250232/
  168. [168]
    https://nineteensixty-four.blogspot.com/2018/12/jesuit-global-demographics-in-2018.html
  169. [169]
    Gaining the Heart of Prester John: Loyola's Blueprint for Ethiopia in ...
    Jesuits and World History. Gaining the Heart of Prester John: Loyola's ... royal confessor to João III so that he could seek ways to develop further ...<|separator|>
  170. [170]
    The Gunpowder Plot of 1605: Henry Garnet and the Jesuits
    Nov 6, 2017 · Jesuits were partly blamed for the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, a plan to kill King James I and blow up Parliament, but they were drawn in ...Missing: accusations political intrigue
  171. [171]
    A Jesuit narrative of the Gunpowder Plot - Thinking Faith
    Nov 4, 2021 · On 15 January 1606, Frs Henry Garnet and John Gerard were accused of conspiracy in the Gunpowder Plot.Missing: intrigue | Show results with:intrigue
  172. [172]
    https://www.thinkingfaith.org/articles/jesuit-narrative-gunpowder-plot
  173. [173]
    The Day the Jesuits Were Suppressed | Catholic Answers Magazine
    Jul 21, 2019 · Many secular rulers were wary of the Jesuits due to their outsized influence and their independence. Jesuits were fiercely loyal to the pope, ...
  174. [174]
    "The Jesuit Suppression in Global Context: Causes, Events, and ...
    This volume traces the causes of the attack on the Jesuits, the national expulsions that preceded universal suppression, and the consequences of these ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
  175. [175]
    Slavery, History, Memory and Reconciliation - Jesuits.org
    They sold more than 272 enslaved people from their plantations to southern Louisiana in a notorious sale in 1838. Learn more at the Georgetown Slavery Archive ...
  176. [176]
    When Jesuits Ignore Papal Decrees - Crisis Magazine
    Sep 9, 2016 · This was precisely the position of Pope Paul III, when in 1537, he outlawed slavery and condemned those who owned or sold slaves. Three ...Missing: condemnations | Show results with:condemnations
  177. [177]
    "Slaveholding was always a choice" - The Jesuit Post
    Apr 18, 2023 · The Jesuit college in Bahia, Brazil owned seventy slaves, and the Jesuits were sending a ship each year to Brazil filled with slaves. Peter ...
  178. [178]
    2.2 The Jesuit Order in Colonial Brazil - Brown University Library
    The Jesuits monopolized indigenous labor and organized hugely productive agricultural endeavors, including cattle ranches and sugar and cotton plantations.Missing: ownership 18th
  179. [179]
    Jesuit Missions of La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná and Jesús de ...
    ... indigenous population as well as to protect them from the colonial labour system of encomienda, a condition of virtual slavery. The inhabitants were brought ...Maps · Documents · Gallery · Assistance
  180. [180]
    Catholic Order Pledges $100 Million to Atone for Slave Labor and ...
    Mar 16, 2021 · The enslavement legacy. The project made a bold claim: that the experience of slavery is inextricable from American history. It prompted praise, ...
  181. [181]
    The Maryland Jesuits discuss and resolve to sell the majority of their ...
    The majority of them agreed to sell their enslaved communities for a term of years before the meeting of September, 1814. However the discussion was moved until ...Missing: divestment restoration
  182. [182]
    casuistry and probabilism
    Nov 4, 2017 · Casuistry has been a common element in moral thinking since ancient Greek philosophy. But a new element that entered into Roman Catholic moral theology in the ...
  183. [183]
    https://theo.kuleuven.be/apps/christian-ethics/history/casuistry.html
  184. [184]
    Rigorism,Tutiorism and Probabilism - The Blue Flower
    Mar 19, 2013 · An extreme form of probabilism was advanced by the Spanish theologian Bartolomé de Medina (1527–1581) and defended by many Jesuits such as Luis ...
  185. [185]
    Blaise Pascal: Provincial Letters - Christian Classics Ethereal Library
    TO THE REVEREND FATHERS, THE JESUITS. October 23, 1656. REVEREND FATHERS,. If I had merely to reply to the three remaining charges on the subject of homicide, ...Missing: satire | Show results with:satire
  186. [186]
    https://ccel.org/ccel/pascal/provincial/provincial.xvi.html
  187. [187]
    Jesuits of Jewish Ancestry and Purity-of-Blood Laws in the Early ...
    ... purity-of-blood laws within the Jesuit Order beginning at the end of the sixteenth century (legally by the Fifth General Congregation in 1593). In ...
  188. [188]
    Jesuits of Jewish ancestry and purity-of-blood laws in the early ...
    Sep 26, 2025 · 5 The Purity of Blood Statutes (pureza [limpieza] de sangre) were implemented in fifteenth-century Spain to discriminate against Jewish ( ...
  189. [189]
    El Estatuto de Limpieza de Sangre de la Compañía de Jesús (1593 ...
    Al mismo tiempo la sangre operaba como un principio discriminador del comportamiento. A finales del siglo XVI, la Compañía de Jesús publicó un decreto de linaje ...
  190. [190]
    Inquisition and Purity of Blood in Portugal during the Seventeenth ...
    This article focuses specifically on the different and changing attitudes of the Inquisitors General to the issue of purity of blood during the seventeenth ...
  191. [191]
    "The Tragic Couple" - Printed_MatterPrinted_Matter
    Feb 28, 2014 · In his argument another Jesuit opponent of purity-of-blood laws, García Girón de Alarcón (1534-1597), evoked the authority of Cardinal ...
  192. [192]
    Fernando de Valdés and the Statutes of Purity of Blood (1632)
    Feb 26, 2021 · In this treatise, Valdés sought to abolish the statutes of purity of blood and reassess the longstanding division between New and Old Christians.
  193. [193]
    Nostra Aetate Dialogue Explores Tangled Roots of Jesuits and Jews
    Nov 1, 2010 · The decree proclaimed that Jewish (and, by extension, Muslim) ancestry, no matter how distant, to be an insurmountable impediment for admission ...Missing: ban | Show results with:ban
  194. [194]
    Papolatry and Progressive Privilege - Catholic World Report
    Dec 19, 2019 · “Progressive” forces dominate the Roman curia now, and they seem to think that they are instruments of the ineluctable forces of historical progress.Missing: internal | Show results with:internal
  195. [195]
    The Jesuits After Vatican II: Two Different Paths - Fleckinstein
    Oct 6, 2023 · As with the broader Church and priesthood, among the Jesuits there are perhaps 10-20 % of strong progressives and perhaps slightly less of clear ...Missing: internal divisions
  196. [196]
    The Jesuits: What Went Wrong - The Catholic Thing
    Nov 10, 2022 · “There's a basic flaw in Jesuit spirituality with too much emphasis on personal discernment. The discernment taking place in their own minds and ...Missing: surrounding | Show results with:surrounding
  197. [197]
    Jesuit superior general Fr. Arturo Sosa: Satan is a 'symbolic reality'
    Aug 21, 2019 · The Catechism of the Catholic teaches that "Satan was at first a good angel, made by God: 'The devil and the other demons were indeed created ...
  198. [198]
    Exorcists to Jesuit head: Satan is real - Catholic World Report
    Aug 23, 2019 · Sosa made headlines earlier this week when he told Italian magazine Tempi that “the devil exists as a symbolic reality, not as a personal ...
  199. [199]
    Italian exorcist to Jesuit leader: No, the devil isn't just a 'symbol'
    Jun 2, 2017 · Sante Babolin said that “the devil, Satan, exists” and that “evil is not an abstraction,” in response to recent comments from Fr. Arturo Sosa, ...<|separator|>
  200. [200]
    More and More Jesuits - First Things
    Apr 3, 2023 · When Church teaching [on sexual behavior] was made, the term homosexuality did not even exist. · Sodomy was seen as something merely orgiastic at ...Missing: syncretism | Show results with:syncretism
  201. [201]
    The Jesuit Reform That Never Happened - National Catholic Register
    Dec 31, 2021 · Forty years later, the papal correction Pope St. John Paul II directed at the Society of Jesus still hasn't taken hold.
  202. [202]
    Tracing the Jesuits' Decline - Catholic Journal
    Aug 11, 2024 · No other organization in human history has been more protective of its past beliefs, or more opposed to “evolution” of them, than the Catholic ...Missing: controversies surrounding
  203. [203]
    Is it true that the Jesuits have become increasingly liberal in their ...
    Apr 26, 2020 · Yes, unfortunately, the Jesuits have become increasingly liberal since the Second Vatican Council which is a shame, because just when we need ...Missing: divisions | Show results with:divisions
  204. [204]
    Saint Edmund Campion | The Society of Jesus
    The most famous of the English martyrs, Edmund Campion (1540-1581) gave up a promising career at Oxford and an invitation to enter Queen Elizabeth's service.
  205. [205]
    CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Edmund Campion - New Advent
    English Jesuit and martyr; he was the son and namesake of a Catholic bookseller, and was born in London, 25 Jan., 1540; executed at Tyburn, 1 Dec., 1581.
  206. [206]
    Saint Edmund Campion SJ (1540–1581) - Wimbledon College
    At 41 years of age Campion was imprisoned in the Tower of London, tortured, tried, and on 1st December 1581 he was hung, drawn and quartered alongside two ...
  207. [207]
    Library : The Nagasaki Martyrs | Catholic Culture
    In 1597, Christianity was banned, and the 26 martyrs perished in Nagasaki. For decades Japanese soil was stained with the blood of Christian martyrs who clung ...
  208. [208]
    The Joyful Japanese Martyrs of Nagasaki - Catholic Insight
    Feb 6, 2025 · Today is the feast of Saint Paul Miki and Companion martyrs, put to death by crucifixion and impaling on February 5, 1597 at Nagasaki, Japan.
  209. [209]
    Japanese Martyrs - Martyrdom of Paul Miki & Companions
    Feb 2, 2025 · After enduring torment and ridicule, Paul Miki and his companions were taken to Nagasaki where they suffered crucifixion in 1597 on the evening of February 5.
  210. [210]
    Living Space Jesuit Martyrs of the Reformation
    Altogether, fourteen Jesuits were martyred. With James Bonnaud were: William Anthony Delfaud, Francis Balmain, Charles Berauld du Perou, Claude Cayx-Dumas, John ...
  211. [211]
    December 1st : St Edmund Campion, SJ - The Jesuits
    Dec 1, 2024 · Fr Campion was finally arrested in Bershire on July 1581 by a professional priest-hunter, George Elliot and was brought to the Tower in London ...
  212. [212]
    Jesuit Victims of the Nazis - Holy Cross
    Feb 7, 2025 · THE NAZIS WAS DEDICATED AT THE FINUCANE JESUIT CENTER OF ROCKHURST JESUIT UNIVERSITY ... Jesuits perished as victims during the Nazi persecution.
  213. [213]
    Hitler and the Jesuits: From November 4, 1944 - America Magazine
    Hitler and the Jesuits: From November 4, 1944. facebook by The Editors ... At the beginning of the Nazi persecution of the Church, those clergy were ...
  214. [214]
    Blessed Rupert Mayer - Thinking Faith
    Nov 7, 2014 · After serving as a chaplain in the First World War, he became an outspoken critic of the Nazis, which led to his imprisonment on more than one occasion.
  215. [215]
    November 1st: Blessed Rupert Mayer, SJ - The Jesuits
    Nov 1, 2024 · As the Nazis were still fearful of him, they arrested him again in Nov 1930 under the pretext that he had cooperated with a royalist movement.
  216. [216]
    The Remarkable Witness and Martyrdom of Father Alfred Delp
    Feb 2, 2021 · Jesuit vs. the Nazis: The Remarkable Witness and Martyrdom of Father Alfred Delp. In the midst of the Nazi nightmare, a German Jesuit priest ...
  217. [217]
    Alfred Delp, SJ (1907—1945) - IgnatianSpirituality.com
    Alfred Delp was a German member of the Society of Jesus, who was executed for his resistance to the Nazi regime. Alfred Delp was born in Mannheim, Germany, ...
  218. [218]
    https://www.ignatianspirituality.com/ignatian-voices/20th-century-ignatian-voices/alfred-delp-sj/
  219. [219]
    Clergy Who Aided Jews in France - Rescue in the Holocaust
    Father Marie-Bénoit, a Catholic Capuchin monk, was an organizer of one of the most successful rescues of Jews in the Holocaust. He worked in Southern France ...
  220. [220]
    How One Jesuit Risked His Life to Save Jewish Children from the ...
    Apr 21, 2015 · ... saved him from the horrors of the Holocaust. In 1943, during the Nazi occupation of Italy, Villa Mondragone, located 20 kilometers from Rome ...
  221. [221]
    Catholic institutions offered shelter to Jews during the Second World ...
    Sep 17, 2023 · The number of people saved from the Nazis is also impressive: some 4,300 people are mentioned, 3,600 of whom can be identified by name. More ...<|separator|>
  222. [222]
    Letter shows Pope Pius XII had detailed information from German ...
    Sep 17, 2023 · Letter shows Pope Pius XII had detailed information from German Jesuit about Nazi holocaust. The documentation from the Vatican archives ...
  223. [223]
    Orchard Lake grad, Jesuit imprisoned in Russia a voice for our times ...
    Feb 29, 2024 · ... persecuted by the Bolshevik communist regime that took over the country in 1917, suppressing the Church and all forms of religion. Ciszek ...
  224. [224]
    Jesuit Missionaries - SI History
    In China, 50 California Jesuits worked in high schools, parishes and at mission stations between 1928 and 1957, and, of those, nearly 20 were SI alumni. With ...<|separator|>
  225. [225]
    A Call to Mission—A History of the Jesuits in China 1842–1954 ...
    May 20, 2019 · By 1954, all foreign missionaries----Catholic and Protestant---had been expelled from China; a few were jailed; and some Chinese clergy paid ...
  226. [226]
    A French Jesuit in China: The Case of André Yverneau 1948–1951
    Oct 12, 2024 · Shortly after his departure in 1951, the 888 remaining foreign Jesuit priests were expelled from China (Leung 2010, p. 793; China Missionary ...
  227. [227]
    Meet the Jesuit who survived the KGB | Catholic News Agency
    Dec 26, 2018 · ... under the communist regime. "The Soviets wanted to destroy Lithuania and suppress religious freedom - that was non existent. They arrested ...
  228. [228]
    [PDF] Slovak Jesuits, Sufferers for the Faith, Martyrs of the Communist ...
    Slovak Jesuits, Sufferers for the Faith, Martyrs of the Communist Regime ... The period of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia brought severe persecution.
  229. [229]
    P. Sosa at Meshkalla College The memory of Jesuit martyrs
    May 18, 2024 · The Jesuit martyrs were imprisoned during the communist regime. Daniel Dajani – the last rector of the College and Seminary – and Gjon Fausti, shot in 1946.
  230. [230]
    A history of persecution - remembering the Vietnamese martyrs
    Nov 27, 2024 · Catholics in communist North Vietnam were subjected to imprisonment and political persecution, with hundreds of thousands fleeing to the south.
  231. [231]
    Catholic Vietnam: Growing despite Communist oppression
    Dec 5, 2016 · One of five remaining Communist nations, Vietnam has been ranked as the world's 20th most oppressive country for Christians by the non-profit ...
  232. [232]
    [PDF] The traditions of Jesuit education in Poland - Ignatianum
    It was founded in 1989, right after the overthrow of the communism regime by the Solidarity movement ... In Poland, the Jesuits have been working in the area.
  233. [233]
    Official and underground: the survival strategy of the Catholic ...
    Nov 14, 2023 · The Communists also tried to differentiate among the clergy, creating organizations that would express positive attitudes towards the Communist ...
  234. [234]
    Six Things to Know about St. Peter Faber, Pope Francis' Favorite ...
    Aug 2, 2021 · Faber co-founded the Society of Jesus. · He was a spiritual director par excellence. · Working in a time of great strife between Catholics and ...
  235. [235]
    On 27 September 1540, the Society of Jesus received papal approval
    Sep 26, 2021 · On 27 September 1540, that he promulgated the bull Regimini Militantis Ecclesiae, which recognised the Society of Jesus as a religious order.Missing: details | Show results with:details
  236. [236]
    Why St. Francis Xavier, SJ, Inspires Us Today - Jesuits.org
    He endured language barriers and years at sea to baptize a reported 700,000 people. Granted, some experts estimate he baptized “only” 30,000. A different Jesuit ...
  237. [237]
    Saint Robert Bellarmine: A Moderate in a Disputatious Age
    Dec 1, 1994 · Carrying out a decree of the Council of Trent, Pope Gregory XIII appointed a commission, with Bellarmine as a member, to produce a reliable ...
  238. [238]
    Missionaries in the Age of Exploration - Money | HowStuffWorks
    Francis Xavier was a Jesuit missionary who was chosen to go to India at the behest of the Portuguese king. He arrived in 1542 and soon learned the local ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
  239. [239]
    St. Francis Xavier: A missionary to Asia | Simply Catholic
    Francis Xavier devoted his remaining years planting the seeds of the Gospel throughout India and Asia. To support Xavier in his work, the pope had named him his ...Missing: diaries | Show results with:diaries
  240. [240]
    Mission in Asia - St. Francis Xavier Lay Missionary Society
    Francis Xavier was the first known missionary to bring the Gospel to Japan when he landed on the southern shores of Kagoshima in 1549. Over the next century, ...Missing: diaries | Show results with:diaries
  241. [241]
    Roberto de Nobili: Case study in missionary accommodation
    In 1606, a young Italian Jesuit named Roberto de Nobili1 (1577-1656) was sent to southeast India. Within two years, fledgling missionary Nobili had adopted ...
  242. [242]
    https://home.snu.edu/~hculbert/nobili.htm
  243. [243]
    The Martyrs of Japan, Saint of February 5 - Tradition In Action
    In 1597, 26 Catholics – six European Franciscan missionaries, three Japanese Jesuits and 17 Japanese laymen including three young boys – were executed by ...
  244. [244]
    St. Peter Claver Made Himself An African Slave - blackcatholic
    Sep 10, 2022 · During the 40 years of his ministry, Claver instructed and baptized an estimated 300,000 slaves. Fr. Claver's apostolate extended beyond his ...
  245. [245]
    Society of Jesus Celebrates Feast of St. Peter Claver, SJ - Jesuits East
    Sep 9, 2022 · Claver spent his life serving African slaves who were brought to Colombia during the 17th century. Born on June 26, 1580, in Catalonia ...<|separator|>
  246. [246]
    Claudio Aquaviva | Jesuit, SJ, Superior General, father ... - Britannica
    Sep 10, 2025 · He promoted the use of The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola for the clergy and laymen. He encouraged the order's theologians and ...
  247. [247]
    [PDF] Review of Jesuit Pedagogy, 1540-1616: A Reader - Digital ...
    Acquaviva's central accomplishment was establishing the committee that produced the most important text for Jesuit education, the Ratio Studiorum (1599).
  248. [248]
    Are Faith and Science in Conflict?: The Galileo Myth
    Dec 5, 2023 · The Jesuits were a Catholic religious order that made significant scientific contributions, and Jesuit astronomers were able to confirm the ...
  249. [249]
    Scientific Geniuses and Their Jesuit Collaborators - Catholic Stand
    Jul 31, 2014 · The Jesuit Francesco Maria Grimaldi (1618-1663) discovered the diffraction of light and published his findings in 1665,[xix] and Isaac Newton ...
  250. [250]
    How Jesuit spirituality gives rise to great scientists - America Magazine
    May 27, 2022 · In fact, astronomy has been a prominent pursuit of Jesuit scientists, who established observatories across the world; they also have been ...
  251. [251]
    4 Jesuit Astronomers and the Sun - Magis Center
    Sep 16, 2025 · 4 Jesuit Astronomers and the Sun · Christoph Scheiner (1573/75–1650) · Angelo Secchi (1818–1878) · Stephen Joseph Perry (1833–1889) · Gyula Fényi ( ...
  252. [252]
    The Jesuits and science in the seventeenth century
    Oct 26, 2022 · The Jesuits provide a difficult subject for the historian of the scientific revolution because they are not the enemies of science that some try ...
  253. [253]
    Father Pedro Arrupe: An Embrace Between Faith and Justice
    Aug 29, 2025 · Our faith must always be more just, and our justice always more faithful, inspired by the Gospel of Jesus. The body of a Jesuit has two arms, ...
  254. [254]
    Three Inspirational Ways Fr. Pedro Arrupe, SJ, Put His Faith into Action
    Nov 27, 2018 · Arrupe used his position as superior general of the Society of Jesus to push for the creation of the Jesuit Refugee Service (JRS), which was ...
  255. [255]
    "Men for Others," Pedro Arrupe (1973) - Portal to Jesuit Studies
    “Men for Others,” Pedro Arrupe (1973) · 1. Fashioning Men for Others. Education for justice has become in recent years one of the chief concerns of the Church.
  256. [256]
    Pierre Teilhard de Chardin: a visionary in controversy - PMC
    Nov 26, 2021 · Teilhard introduced a new -and often controversial- cosmological vision where evolution is not random, but has a direction towards increasing ...
  257. [257]
    TEILHARD DE CHARDIN, THE “SIX PROPOSITIONS,” AND THE ...
    Between 1924 and 1937, the Jesuit Curia in Rome repeatedly placed restrictions on what Jesuit priest‐paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin was allowed to ...<|separator|>
  258. [258]
    Teilhard de Chardin and the Incomplete Nature of Evolutionary Theory
    Feb 13, 2020 · Teilhard argued that the science of his time had a truncated view of evolution. Scientists studied the evolutionary process as if it were a ...
  259. [259]
    Integral ecology – a concept of Pope Francis | The Society of Jesus
    Jul 17, 2024 · The concept of integral ecology is an insight from the 2015 Encyclical Laudato si' (LS), which Pope Francis dedicates to the care of our common home.
  260. [260]
    Jesuit Institutions Rise to Pope Francis's Challenge of Laudato Si'
    Jun 14, 2016 · Answering Pope Francis's call to action in Laudato Si' by advocating a response to climate change. Le Moyne joined 30 Catholic dioceses ...
  261. [261]
    The Jesuit Pope - First Things
    Apr 21, 2025 · Pope Francis's most widely read encyclical was Laudato Si. It, too, was politically clever. The topic addressed was environmentalism, especially ...
  262. [262]
    Jesuit Superior General Father Arturo Sosa Welcomes Delegates to ...
    Jun 19, 2025 · Jesuit Superior General Father Arturo Sosa welcomed the delegates attending the Jesuit Integral Ecology Assembly.
  263. [263]
    Fr General | The Society of Jesus - Jesuits.global
    He was elected Superior General on the 14th October 2016. General Congregation 36. Newly elected Fr Arturo Sosa SJ prays before the tomb of St Ignatius. Arturo ...