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Pericardial window

A pericardial window is a surgical procedure in which a small portion of the pericardium—the thin, double-layered sac that encloses and protects the heart—is excised to create an opening, allowing excess fluid (pericardial effusion) to drain continuously into the adjacent pleural or peritoneal cavity and thereby alleviate pressure on the heart.^[1]^[2] This intervention is primarily indicated for managing symptomatic or recurrent pericardial effusions that risk progressing to cardiac tamponade, a life-threatening condition where fluid accumulation compresses the heart and impairs its function, and it is often employed when less invasive methods like pericardiocentesis fail to provide lasting relief.^[1]^[2] The procedure is typically performed under general anesthesia and can be approached via several techniques, including a subxiphoid incision below the breastbone for direct access to the pericardium, a left anterior thoracotomy through an intercostal space, or minimally invasive video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) using small chest incisions and a thoracoscope to guide the creation of a 4x4 cm window while avoiding the phrenic nerve.^[1]^[2] Common indications include effusions caused by malignancy, infection (such as purulent or tuberculous pericarditis), post-cardiac surgery complications like hemopericardium, or idiopathic inflammation, particularly in stable patients where diagnostic evaluation of the fluid is also needed.^[2] A drainage tube is often placed temporarily to monitor output and prevent reaccumulation, with the surgery lasting several hours depending on the approach.^[1] While effective in providing midterm relief with recurrence rates ranging from 0% to 33% across studies, potential complications include bleeding, infection, arrhythmias, blood clots, or the need for reoperation in cases of persistent effusion.^[2] Recovery generally involves a hospital stay of a few days, with patients advised to avoid heavy lifting for weeks, and stitches removed after 7-10 days, allowing most to resume normal activities shortly thereafter.^[1] The choice of technique is guided by patient anatomy, effusion characteristics (e.g., loculated), and any coexisting thoracic pathologies, with thoracoscopic methods preferred for their reduced invasiveness in select cases.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

A pericardial window is a surgical procedure involving the creation of an opening or fistula in the pericardium, the thin sac surrounding the heart, to facilitate drainage of excess fluid from the pericardial space into an adjacent body cavity, such as the pleural or peritoneal space.^[3]^[1] This intervention addresses pericardial effusion, the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pericardial sac, by establishing a pathway for continuous fluid shunting.^[4] The primary purpose of a pericardial window is to relieve pressure from pericardial effusion, thereby preventing or treating cardiac tamponade—a life-threatening condition where fluid compression impairs heart function—and to provide therapeutic drainage on an ongoing basis.^[5] Additionally, it serves a diagnostic function by allowing collection and analysis of the drained fluid to identify underlying causes, such as infection, malignancy, or inflammation.^[1] As a form of partial pericardiectomy, the pericardial window is less invasive than a complete pericardiectomy, which involves total removal of the pericardium and is reserved for chronic conditions like constrictive pericarditis; the window provides temporary relief through targeted fluid diversion rather than comprehensive pericardial excision.^[6] Mechanistically, it entails the excision of a small segment of the pericardium, typically 3 to 5 cm in size, to create the drainage window, often augmented by temporary tube placement to promote initial fluid evacuation.^[7]^[8]

Relevant Anatomy and Physiology

The pericardium is a conical, double-walled fibroserous sac that encloses the heart and the proximal portions of the great vessels, including the aorta, pulmonary trunk, superior and inferior venae cavae, and pulmonary veins. It consists of two primary components: the outer fibrous pericardium, a tough layer of dense collagenous connective tissue that provides structural support and anchorage within the mediastinum, and the inner serous pericardium, which is a thin, translucent membrane divided into the parietal layer lining the fibrous pericardium and the visceral layer (also called the epicardium) that directly adheres to the myocardial surface.^[9]^[10] The physiological functions of the pericardium are essential for cardiac efficiency and protection. It acts as a mechanical barrier, shielding the heart from external trauma, infection, and excessive dilation during hemodynamic stress, while also fixing the heart's position in the mediastinum to optimize its interactions with surrounding structures. The serous layers and their lubricating fluid minimize friction between the heart and adjacent tissues during systolic and diastolic movements, and the pericardium helps maintain optimal intracardiac pressures by constraining ventricular overdistension, thereby supporting efficient diastolic filling and overall cardiac output.^[9]^[10] The pericardial space, formed between the parietal and visceral serous layers, normally contains a small volume of serous fluid, typically 15–50 mL in adults, which serves as a lubricant to facilitate smooth cardiac motion. This fluid is an ultrafiltrate of plasma, produced primarily by epicardial capillaries and myocardial interstitial fluid, with a composition featuring lower concentrations of sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, proteins, and osmolarity compared to plasma, but slightly higher potassium levels; it is continuously renewed and drained via lymphatic vessels in the parietal pericardium, with full turnover occurring every few hours under normal conditions. In pathological states, excessive fluid accumulation in this space can elevate intrapericardial pressure, leading to cardiac tamponade physiology, where external compression restricts diastolic ventricular filling, reduces venous return, and diminishes stroke volume and cardiac output, potentially causing hemodynamic collapse if untreated.^[11]^[9] Anatomically, the pericardium maintains critical relationships with adjacent structures that influence its overall stability and accessibility. Inferiorly, the fibrous pericardium fuses with the central tendon of the diaphragm, providing attachment and separating the pericardial cavity from the peritoneal cavity, while laterally it lies in close proximity to the parietal pleura, with potential extensions of pericardial fluid communicating into pleural spaces in certain conditions. Superiorly and posteriorly, it is contiguous with the roots of the major great vessels, which pierce the pericardium at specific reflections, and anteriorly it connects to the sternum via superior and inferior sternopericardial ligaments, all of which contribute to the heart's fixed yet flexible positioning within the thoracic cavity.^[9]^[12]

Indications and Patient Selection

Primary Indications

The primary indications for a pericardial window procedure center on the management of pericardial effusions that are symptomatic, recurrent, or require diagnostic evaluation, particularly in patients with stable hemodynamics where less invasive options like pericardiocentesis have failed or are inappropriate.^[13] Surgical pericardial window is recommended (Class I, Level B) for recurrent effusions failing pericardiocentesis. Symptomatic large effusions (>20 mm in diastole) causing hemodynamic instability, dyspnea, or chest pain are key scenarios, especially when associated with cardiac tamponade of suspected neoplastic or infectious etiology, as the procedure provides both therapeutic drainage and opportunities for fluid and tissue analysis.^[13]^[14] In acute tamponade, pericardiocentesis remains the first-line intervention, but a pericardial window is recommended if the effusion is loculated, recurrent, or purulent, to prevent reaccumulation and address underlying pathology.^[13]^[15] For asymptomatic or stable effusions, the procedure is indicated in undiagnosed cases necessitating sampling for etiology, such as suspected malignancy or infection, where histopathological examination of pericardial tissue can guide further treatment. In neoplastic pericardial effusions, extended drainage (3-6 days) is recommended to prevent early reaccumulation.^[16] Specific etiologies include purulent, fungal, or tuberculous pericarditis, where surgical drainage is preferred over percutaneous methods due to the risk of incomplete evacuation and high mortality; neoplastic effusions in oncology patients, particularly those recurrent after initial drainage; and post-traumatic or iatrogenic effusions following procedures like pacemaker insertion.^[13]^[14] Recurrent benign effusions unresponsive to repeated pericardiocentesis also warrant consideration, as the window facilitates long-term drainage into the pleural space.^[15] Patient selection emphasizes hemodynamic stability to minimize perioperative risks, with the procedure favored for subacute or chronic presentations rather than emergent tamponade, allowing for elective planning and multidisciplinary input, such as in cases of uremia or post-cardiac surgery effusions.^[13]^[15] The diagnostic role is particularly valuable when malignancy is suspected, enabling pericardial biopsy that can identify metastatic disease in up to 11% of cases, though overall yield remains modest (around 17%).^[16]

Contraindications

Absolute contraindications to performing a pericardial window include situations where the patient is hemodynamically unstable and requires immediate sternotomy for concomitant cardiac surgery, such as valve repair or coronary artery bypass grafting, as the procedure would necessitate a full pericardiotomy anyway.^[2] Relative contraindications encompass conditions that increase perioperative risk but may not preclude the procedure entirely after careful assessment. These include uncorrected coagulopathy or ongoing anticoagulant therapy, which heighten the potential for bleeding complications during incision and dissection.^[17] Active infection at the proposed incision site, such as subxiphoid or thoracotomy area, poses a risk of spreading infection or wound complications. Severe pulmonary disease that impairs tolerance to thoracotomy or single-lung ventilation, particularly in thoracoscopic approaches, limits feasibility due to respiratory compromise. Additionally, advanced malignancy with a poor overall prognosis may render the intervention less beneficial, as recurrent effusions could rapidly reaccumulate despite the window.^[18] In cases contraindicated for surgical pericardial window, alternative treatments are prioritized to manage pericardial effusions effectively while minimizing harm. For acute cardiac tamponade, pericardiocentesis serves as the initial intervention, providing rapid decompression in hemodynamically unstable patients. Medical management, including anti-inflammatory therapy or addressing underlying causes, is preferred for small, stable effusions without significant hemodynamic impact.^[4] Clinical decision-making for high-risk patients requires weighing the potential benefits of pericardial window against procedural risks, particularly in those with recent myocardial infarction, where effusion management must balance decompression needs with cardiac recovery.^[17]

Surgical Procedure

Preoperative Preparation

Preoperative preparation for a pericardial window procedure begins with a comprehensive diagnostic evaluation to confirm the presence and characteristics of the pericardial effusion, as well as to assess for cardiac tamponade. Transthoracic or transesophageal echocardiography is essential to determine the effusion's size, location, and hemodynamic impact, such as right atrial or ventricular collapse and inferior vena cava dilatation, with high sensitivity and specificity for detecting pericardial effusion, tamponade physiology, and associated cardiac injuries in stable patients.^[2]^[17] Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be employed to elucidate the underlying etiology, particularly in cases of trauma or unclear clinical presentation, while providing additional evaluation of adjacent structures like the pleura.^[2] Blood tests, including complete blood count (CBC), coagulation profile, and serum chemistries (e.g., blood urea nitrogen, creatinine), are routinely performed to assess overall health and identify any derangements; if infection is suspected, cultures of blood or aspirated fluid guide further testing.^[19] Patient optimization focuses on achieving hemodynamic stability to minimize perioperative risks. Intravenous fluid resuscitation is used to expand intravascular volume and maintain preload, while avoiding agents that cause bradycardia or reduce systemic vascular resistance; in unstable patients, urgent pericardiocentesis may be performed preoperatively to temporarily relieve tamponade physiology.^[17] Coagulopathy, if present, is corrected through administration of blood products or reversal agents to reduce bleeding risk, and broad-spectrum antibiotics are initiated empirically in suspected infectious effusions pending culture results.^[19] Informed consent is obtained, emphasizing the procedure's diagnostic yield for identifying effusion causes and potential therapeutic benefits, with discussion of risks tailored to the patient's condition. Anesthesia planning is critical, particularly given the potential for hemodynamic instability. General anesthesia is preferred for the subxiphoid approach, with induction agents like ketamine selected to preserve cardiac output; single-lung ventilation is required for thoracoscopic or thoracotomy variants.^[2]^[17] Invasive monitoring, including arterial lines for blood pressure and central venous catheters for pressure assessment, is standard, often supplemented by transesophageal echocardiography for real-time guidance; vasopressors (e.g., metaraminol) and inotropes (e.g., adrenaline) should be readily available.^[17] The patient is positioned supine for subxiphoid access, with the operative field prepped and draped prior to induction in hemodynamically compromised cases to facilitate rapid intervention.^[2] Multidisciplinary input enhances preparation, with cardiology consultation to evaluate cardiac function and optimize management of underlying heart disease, and oncology involvement if malignancy is implicated as the effusion's cause, informing both procedural urgency and adjunctive therapies.^[19]

Operative Techniques

The operative techniques for creating a pericardial window primarily involve surgical access to the pericardium to drain effusion and excise a portion of the pericardial sac, allowing fluid to communicate with adjacent cavities such as the pleural or peritoneal space. The most common approach is the subxiphoid incision, which is minimally invasive and suitable for the majority of cases, followed by variations including left anterior thoracotomy, video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS), robotic-assisted VATS as an emerging minimally invasive option, and rarely, transdiaphragmatic pericardial-peritoneal windows via laparoscopy-like access.^[20]^[21] These methods typically require general anesthesia, though local anesthesia may suffice for select subxiphoid procedures in palliative settings, and the overall duration ranges from 30 to 75 minutes depending on the approach and patient factors.^[20]^[22] Standard instruments include scalpels for incision, retractors for exposure, suction devices for fluid aspiration, scissors or diathermy for pericardiotomy, and sutures for closure, with chest drains placed as needed to prevent reaccumulation.^[22]^[23] Robotic-assisted pericardial window, performed using da Vinci systems via small incisions similar to VATS, offers enhanced visualization and dexterity, with reported mean operative times of approximately 56 minutes and low early complication rates in stable patients as of 2025.^[21] In the subxiphoid approach, a 4- to 6-cm vertical incision is made just inferior to the xiphoid process, followed by dissection through subcutaneous tissue and the linea alba to expose the pericardium anterior to the diaphragm.^[20] The pericardium is then incised longitudinally, allowing aspiration of effusion fluid—often 500 to 1500 mL—using a suction device to relieve tamponade.^[20] A pericardial window of 4 to 5 cm in diameter is excised, typically creating a pleuropericardial communication if extended superiorly, or a pericardio-diaphragmatic window if opened toward the peritoneal cavity; the edges may be sutured to adjacent tissues to maintain patency.^[20]^[23] A drain is commonly placed through a separate stab incision and connected to negative pressure, after which the incision is closed in layers. This technique is favored for its simplicity and reduced postoperative pain, with operative times averaging 36 minutes.^[20] For left anterior thoracotomy, particularly useful in cases with loculated effusions or obesity where subxiphoid access is limited, a 6- to 8-cm curvilinear incision is made along the fourth or fifth intercostal space in the parasternal region, sparing the internal thoracic artery.^[22] Ribs are spread with a pediatric retractor to visualize the pericardium, which is bluntly dissected and incised parallel to the phrenic nerve. Fluid is evacuated via suction, and a 4- by 6-cm window is created using bipolar diathermy scissors, often forming a wide pleuropericardial opening.^[22] One or two chest tubes (e.g., 24- to 28-French) are inserted for drainage, and the wound is closed with intercostal nerve blocks for analgesia; operative times average 73 minutes.^[22] Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) employs a uniportal or multiportal right- or left-sided approach, with 1- to 2-cm incisions for camera and instrument insertion, often under CO2 insufflation to enhance visualization.^[24] The pericardium is grasped and divided from the superior pulmonary veins to the diaphragm, excising a 4- by 4-cm window while visualizing and protecting the phrenic nerve. In modified techniques, the pericardial edges overlying the superior vena cava and right atrium are anchored to the chest wall with absorbable sutures (e.g., VICRYL) to form a tent-like structure, preventing adhesions and ensuring a durable pleuropericardial communication.^[24] Fluid loculations are broken with a sucker, and a chest tube is placed if indicated; this method takes approximately 44 minutes and offers superior exposure for biopsy but requires specialized thoracoscopic equipment.^[20]^[25] A less common variation is the pericardial-peritoneal window via transdiaphragmatic access, performed through a subxiphoid incision under local or general anesthesia for palliative drainage in malignant effusions. The pericardium is exposed and opened, followed by a 4- by 4-cm incision through the central tendon of the diaphragm to connect the pericardial and peritoneal cavities, with edges sutured using interrupted nonabsorbable sutures to peritoneum and pericardium without drains. This partial window facilitates continuous drainage into the abdomen and typically requires no extended hospitalization.^[23]

Postoperative Management

Following pericardial window surgery, patients are typically transferred to an intensive care unit (ICU) or a specialized recovery area for close hemodynamic monitoring, including blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiac output, to detect any instability or arrhythmias that may arise immediately post-procedure.^[1] Pain management is initiated with intravenous analgesics, with subxiphoid approaches associated with reduced narcotic requirements (mean 32.4 mg morphine equivalents in the first 48 hours) compared to thoracotomy.^[15] A chest drain is commonly placed to evacuate residual fluid, and it is removed once output falls below 100 mL per 24 hours, typically within 48-72 hours, provided there is no air leak or evidence of infection.^[15]^[26] The hospital stay generally lasts 3-7 days, depending on the surgical approach and patient stability, during which early ambulation and chest physiotherapy are encouraged starting on postoperative day 1 to promote recovery and prevent complications such as atelectasis.^[27]^[26] Serial echocardiography is performed to confirm resolution of the pericardial effusion, with studies showing this imaging in approximately 75% of cases within the first two weeks.^[15] If the effusion was due to an infectious cause, targeted antibiotic therapy is continued based on preoperative cultures and intraoperative fluid analysis, alongside routine prophylactic antibiotics discontinued within 24-48 hours unless infection is confirmed.^[26] Oral intake begins with clear liquids within 6-12 hours if tolerated, advancing to a soft diet as gastrointestinal function returns.^[26]^[1] Outpatient follow-up is scheduled at 1 week and 1 month post-discharge, including clinical evaluation, chest X-ray, and repeat echocardiography to monitor for effusion recurrence.^[26] Suture or staple removal occurs around 7-10 days, and patients are advised to restrict activities, avoiding heavy lifting or strenuous exertion for 4-6 weeks to allow incision healing and reduce strain on the pericardium.^[1] Pericardial fluid and tissue samples obtained during surgery undergo pathological and microbiological review to confirm the underlying etiology, guiding any necessary long-term management.^[26]

Risks and Complications

Intraoperative Risks

One of the primary intraoperative risks in pericardial window surgery is bleeding, which can result from inadvertent injury to coronary vessels or the heart during pericardiotomy. This complication is particularly relevant in approaches like the subxiphoid incision, where dissection occurs in close proximity to these structures, potentially leading to significant hemorrhage if not promptly controlled.^[2] Although specific incidences vary by patient cohort and surgical technique, bleeding is reported as a low-frequency event in contemporary series, often managed with direct hemostasis or drainage.^[28] Cardiac injury represents another critical hazard, manifesting as accidental puncture of the myocardium or great vessels during surgical access, with heightened concern in the subxiphoid approach due to limited visibility and the need for blunt dissection through the diaphragm. Such injuries can precipitate myocardial infarction or cardiac arrest if the pericardial space is breached unexpectedly.^[2] Arrhythmias, such as ventricular fibrillation, may also arise from mechanical manipulation adjacent to the myocardium, disrupting electrical conduction and requiring immediate intervention.^[18] Anesthesia-related challenges further compound these risks, including hypotension triggered by rapid fluid shifts following pericardial decompression or by the vasodilatory and myocardial depressant effects of induction agents and positive pressure ventilation. In patients with underlying tamponade physiology, these factors can lead to acute cardiovascular decompensation.^[17] To mitigate these intraoperative hazards, surgeons employ transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) for real-time guidance, enabling visualization of cardiac structures to prevent vascular or myocardial injury during dissection.^[17] Additional strategies include meticulous layered dissection, placement of external defibrillator pads prior to incision for rapid arrhythmia management, and invasive hemodynamic monitoring with arterial and central venous lines to detect and address instability promptly.^[2]

Postoperative Complications

Postoperative complications following pericardial window surgery, while generally infrequent, can include infections, recurrence of effusion, respiratory issues, and less common events such as persistent arrhythmias or cardiac herniation. These adverse outcomes typically arise during the recovery phase and are influenced by patient factors like underlying malignancy or the etiology of the initial effusion, such as purulent pericarditis. Vigilant postoperative care is essential to mitigate risks and detect issues early. Infections, particularly wound infections or mediastinitis, are reported at low rates, with higher incidence in cases of purulent pericarditis due to the infectious nature of the effusion. Wound infections may be more common with transthoracic approaches compared to subxiphoid techniques. Mediastinitis, a deeper infection, can occur but is uncommon, aligning with general rates in cardiac surgery and potentially exacerbated in purulent cases where bacterial contamination persists despite drainage. Prophylactic broad-spectrum antibiotics administered perioperatively are standard to reduce this risk, alongside strict sterile technique and wound care.^[2] Recurrence of pericardial effusion, often due to incomplete drainage or ongoing underlying pathology, affects 0-33% of patients, with rates as low as 3.7% overall but significantly higher (up to 20-30%) in those with malignancy, where neoplastic processes promote reaccumulation.^[2]^[29] Subxiphoid approaches show higher recurrence (around 9%) than thoracotomy (0%), attributed to less comprehensive evacuation of loculated fluid.^[28] Intraoperative precautions, such as ensuring a sufficiently large window, can help minimize this postoperative issue. Respiratory complications, including pneumothorax or pleural effusion, can occur particularly with thoracoscopic or transthoracic approaches that involve pleural space entry, potentially leading to prolonged ventilatory support. These issues stem from potential air leaks or fluid shifts post-drainage and are more pronounced in patients with preexisting lung conditions.^[28] Other complications encompass persistence of preoperative arrhythmias, which may continue in some cases requiring ongoing medical management, and chronic pain at the surgical site, though this is reduced with subxiphoid methods (lower morphine requirements). Rare but serious events include cardiac herniation (incidence under 1%), where abdominal organs protrude through the pericardial defect and present months postoperatively with dyspnea or pain. Prevention strategies emphasize prophylactic antibiotics, serial echocardiographic monitoring for effusion reaccumulation, and close clinical surveillance for hemodynamic instability or new symptoms in the first few weeks post-surgery.^[2]^[30]

Outcomes and Efficacy

Short-Term Success

The pericardial window procedure offers rapid symptom relief for patients experiencing cardiac tamponade due to pericardial effusion, with hemodynamic stabilization typically achieved within hours of intervention. In a systematic review of surgical management strategies, complete drainage was reported in 98% of cases using the subxiphoid approach, leading to immediate resolution of tamponade physiology and associated symptoms such as hypotension and dyspnea.^[31] Similarly, a series of 28 patients demonstrated effective effusion relief in all cases, with no operative mortality and prompt clinical improvement attributed to the creation of a drainage pathway.^[32] Diagnostic yield from fluid cytology and tissue biopsy during pericardial window is generally limited, identifying the underlying etiology in approximately 17% of cases overall. Cytology alone provides a positive diagnosis in about 5% of patients, primarily detecting malignancies such as lung or breast adenocarcinoma, while biopsy adds marginal value with only 1-2% additional yield for conditions like melanoma.^[16] In patients with known malignancy, the yield improves to around 58% for confirming neoplastic involvement, though it remains suboptimal for idiopathic or infectious etiologies.^[33] Short-term recurrence rates of effusion are low, typically 3-7% within the initial postoperative period when an adequate window size is ensured, as evidenced by a 10-year experience showing 3.7% overall recurrence across 191 procedures.^[34] A 2025 systematic review reported an overall recurrence rate of 10.2% across 2773 patients, with subxiphoid approach at 7.5%.^[31] Hospital mortality is also minimal, under 2% in uncomplicated series, particularly for benign effusions where success rates exceed 90% in achieving sustained drainage without reaccumulation.^[32] These outcomes highlight the procedure's efficacy in providing immediate palliation, though selection of approach influences results.

Long-Term Results

The long-term efficacy of pericardial window in controlling pericardial effusion varies significantly by underlying etiology, with idiopathic or benign cases demonstrating sustained drainage and low recurrence rates of 10-30%, resulting in 70-90% of patients remaining recurrence-free over several years.^[35] In contrast, neoplastic effusions exhibit higher recurrence rates of approximately 10%, often necessitating additional interventions despite the window's creation.^[36] These patterns highlight the procedure's durability in non-malignant contexts, where follow-up imaging typically shows stable resolution beyond the initial postoperative period. A 2025 systematic review confirmed an overall long-term recurrence of 10.2%, varying by surgical approach.^[31] Survival outcomes following pericardial window are closely tied to the effusion's cause, with patients having benign etiologies achieving greater than 80% five-year survival rates, reflecting effective palliation without disease progression.^[35] For oncology patients, median survival ranges from 6 to 12 months post-procedure, influenced by tumor type, stage, and response to systemic therapy, though the window itself provides reliable effusion control independent of overall prognosis.^[37]^[38] Patients generally experience improved quality of life through enhanced cardiac function and reduced symptoms of tamponade or dyspnea, enabling better tolerance of concurrent treatments in chronic cases.^[39] A rare late sequela is constrictive pericarditis, occurring in less than 5% of idiopathic cases and typically manageable with pericardiectomy if it develops years after the initial surgery.^[35] Key factors influencing long-term durability include the underlying etiology, which overrides procedural variables in predicting outcomes. Repeat procedures are required in approximately 9% of cases overall, most commonly within the first year and more frequently in malignant settings.^[35]

History

Early Developments

The origins of surgical interventions for pericardial drainage trace back to the early 19th century, with Francisco Romero performing the first documented open pericardiostomy in 1801. As a physician in Barcelona, Romero successfully drained pericardial effusions in at least two patients through direct incision into the pericardial sac, establishing the feasibility of operative access to relieve tamponade without immediate fatality. This pioneering procedure laid the groundwork for subsequent efforts to manage pericardial accumulations surgically, though detailed accounts were preserved in Romero's memoir, which highlighted the technique's potential despite limited contemporary recognition.^[40] In 1829, French surgeon Dominique Jean Larrey, Napoleon's chief military surgeon, performed the first pericardial window by creating a subxiphoid incision to drain effusion into the peritoneal cavity, marking an early evolution toward fenestration for ongoing drainage.^[3] Advances in the late 19th century further demonstrated the viability of pericardial access during cardiac repair. In 1896, German surgeon Ludwig Rehn achieved the first successful suture of a penetrating heart wound in a 22-year-old patient, involving incision of the pericardium to expose and close a right ventricular laceration via left thoracotomy. Rehn's operation not only saved the patient but also challenged prevailing medical dogma that cardiac surgery was invariably fatal, thereby encouraging broader exploration of pericardial interventions for both trauma and effusions.^[41] By the early 20th century, less invasive techniques gained prominence alongside open methods. French pediatrician Antoine Marfan popularized pericardiocentesis in 1911 by describing the subxiphoid needle aspiration approach, which allowed therapeutic drainage of effusions with reduced surgical risk compared to thoracotomy. Thoracotomy-based pericardial window procedures also became more common for tuberculous pericarditis—a prevalent etiology of chronic effusions—where surgeons excised pericardial segments to facilitate ongoing drainage into the pleural cavity, aiming to prevent recurrence in infectious cases. These windows, often performed through left anterolateral incisions, represented an evolution toward preventive decompression but were reserved for severe, refractory presentations.^[42] A major constraint on early pericardial surgeries up to the mid-20th century was the absence of antibiotics, leading to high postoperative mortality rates often exceeding 50% due to overwhelming infections such as empyema or sepsis. These limitations underscored the era's reliance on aseptic techniques alone, restricting procedures primarily to life-threatening tamponade while highlighting the need for antimicrobial advancements to broaden applicability.^[43]

Modern Advancements

In the mid-20th century, the subxiphoid pericardial window technique was revived as a safer approach to accessing the pericardium, building on 19th-century precedents by providing direct inferior access with reduced risk of major vascular or cardiac injury.^[44] This method, described in modern literature from the 1960s and gaining traction through the 1970s, allowed for effective drainage of effusions while minimizing operative trauma compared to more invasive thoracotomies.^[45] Operative mortality associated with this approach was reported as approximately 11% in benign cases, reflecting improvements in perioperative care and surgical precision during this era.^[46] During the 1980s and 1990s, the adoption of thoracoscopy and video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) marked a significant refinement, enabling precise creation of pericardial windows through smaller incisions with enhanced visualization. These minimally invasive techniques reduced recovery times and complications while maintaining diagnostic and therapeutic efficacy. Studies from the early 1990s demonstrated long-term success rates exceeding 90% in relieving effusions, with low operative mortality underscoring the reliability of VATS for both benign and malignant cases.^[32] From the 2000s onward, advancements incorporated imaging guidance, such as echocardiography and computed tomography (CT), to further enhance procedural safety and accuracy in pericardial window creation.^[47] Echocardiography-guided approaches, refined through the early 2000s, improved real-time navigation and reduced risks like cardiac puncture.^[48] Concurrently, percutaneous balloon pericardiotomy emerged as a nonsurgical alternative, using inflatable devices to form a drainage window, particularly beneficial for high-risk patients with recurrent effusions.^[49] In oncology, integration with systemic chemotherapy has shown superior outcomes, with combined pericardial window procedures preventing reaccumulation and extending survival in malignant effusions.^[50] Comprehensive reviews spanning 1977 to 2018 affirm the overall efficacy of pericardial windows in managing effusions, with diagnostic sensitivity of 92-100% and specificity of 96-100% across diverse etiologies.^[51] During the COVID-19 pandemic, adaptations emphasized minimally invasive techniques like VATS and subxiphoid windows to minimize aerosol generation and operative exposure, proving effective in treating virus-associated effusions and tamponade.^[52]

Veterinary Applications

Use in Companion Animals

In companion animals, the pericardial window procedure is primarily employed to manage pericardial effusions, with dogs being the most frequently affected species due to the higher incidence of this condition compared to cats or other pets. Common etiologies in dogs include idiopathic pericarditis and neoplasia, the latter often involving hemangiosarcoma or heart base tumors such as chemodectoma.^[53] In cats, effusions are less common and typically linked to heart failure from hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or neoplasia like lymphoma, where the procedure serves mainly as a palliative measure to alleviate cardiac tamponade.^[54] The condition is rare in other companion animals, such as rabbits or small mammals, where alternative causes like trauma predominate if effusion occurs.^[53] Veterinary adaptations of the procedure favor a thoracoscopic approach for creating the pericardial window, which offers low morbidity, reduced postoperative pain, and shorter surgery and hospitalization times compared to open thoracotomy.^[55] This minimally invasive method is particularly suitable for stable dogs weighing over 6-10 kg, allowing for effective drainage and pericardioscopy to aid diagnosis.^[56] For cases prone to recurrence, such as idiopathic effusions in dogs, subtotal pericardiectomy—often performed via thoracotomy—is preferred over a simple window to provide more durable prevention of fluid reaccumulation.^[57] Outcomes in dogs with idiopathic effusions show effective short-term control, with studies reporting resolution of tamponade and return to normal activity in the majority of cases following thoracoscopic windows, though recurrence can occur without wider resection.^[55] Median survival times for idiopathic cases treated with thoracoscopic windows reach approximately 13 months, with 1-year survival rates around 58%.^[56] In neoplastic effusions, the procedure offers short-term palliation, typically extending survival by 2-4 months, as the underlying malignancy limits long-term efficacy.^[56] For cats, palliative outcomes are similarly brief, focusing on symptom relief rather than cure, with success dependent on concurrent management of the primary cause like heart failure.^[54]

Species-Specific Considerations

In veterinary medicine, the application of pericardial window procedures varies significantly across species due to differences in pericardial effusion prevalence, underlying etiologies, anatomical constraints, and treatment feasibility. While the technique—creating a surgical opening in the pericardium to allow fluid drainage into the pleural space—is most established in small companion animals, its use in large animals is limited and often replaced by less invasive methods like pericardiocentesis.^[53] In dogs, pericardial effusion is a relatively common acquired cardiac condition, frequently idiopathic or associated with neoplasia such as hemangiosarcoma, affecting up to 0.43% of clinical cases in referral populations. Thoracoscopic pericardial window is a preferred surgical option for recurrent or idiopathic effusions, typically involving a 4- to 5-cm opening that provides effective palliation with low morbidity, short operative times (median 45–55 minutes, depending on approach), and hospitalization durations of 1-2 days. Long-term success rates exceed 80% for idiopathic cases, though neoplastic etiologies carry poorer prognoses due to underlying disease progression.^[58]^[55] In cats, pericardial effusion is rare, comprising around 1–2% of cardiac presentations in post-mortem studies and often linked to congestive heart failure, neoplasia, or infectious causes like feline infectious peritonitis. Surgical pericardial window or subtotal pericardiectomy is feasible via thoracoscopy but is reserved for cases refractory to pericardiocentesis, given the smaller thoracic cavity and higher risk of complications such as pneumothorax. Outcomes are guarded, with survival influenced primarily by the primary disease, and the procedure's efficacy in preventing recurrence is less documented than in dogs due to lower incidence.^[53]^[59]^[60] For horses, pericardial effusion secondary to pericarditis is uncommon, typically septic or idiopathic, and manifests with signs of right heart failure like jugular distension and ventral edema. Pericardial window surgery is rarely performed owing to the large body size, deep thoracic cavity, and logistical challenges; instead, ultrasound-guided pericardiocentesis with lavage using warmed antimicrobial solutions (e.g., 1-2 liters of fluid) is the mainstay, achieving resolution in septic cases with early intervention. Surgical pericardiotomy has been reported anecdotally in refractory instances but lacks widespread adoption.^[61]^[62] In ruminants such as cattle, pericardial effusion often arises from traumatic reticulopericarditis due to ingested foreign bodies, leading to fibrinous or suppurative accumulation. Pericardial window via thoracoscopy has been described as a palliative measure in select cases, facilitating drainage and reducing tamponade, but it is not routine due to economic considerations and the efficacy of repeated pericardiocentesis with lavage (using 5-10 liters of fluid infused intrapericardially). Success rates for surgical intervention are variable, with survival improved when combined with systemic antibiotics, though chronic constrictive forms may necessitate more extensive pericardiectomy.^[63]

References

[1]
Pericardial Window | Johns Hopkins Medicine
A pericardial window is a procedure in which a small part of the sac around the heart is surgically removed to drain excess fluid.
[2]
Pericardial Window: Overview, Indications and Contraindications ...
Sep 3, 2024 · Pericardial window involves the excision of a portion of the pericardium, which allows the effusion to drain continuously into the peritoneum or chest.
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Pericardial Window - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A pericardial window or partial pericardiectomy is performed to drain fluid into the pleural or peritoneal compartments in patients with recurring PE.
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Cardiac Tamponade - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Cardiac tamponade is a medical emergency that takes place when abnormal amounts of fluid accumulate in the pericardial sac compressing the heart.Bookshelf · Cardiac Tamponade · Enhancing Healthcare Team...
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Pericardial windows have limited diagnostic success
Jul 18, 2018 · Surgical pericardial drainage procedures allow for removal of PE that may lead to tamponade physiology and potential mortality.
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Pericardiectomy and Pericardial Window for the Treatment of ...
Aug 27, 2022 · To summarize the contemporary practice of pericardiectomy and pericardial window. We discuss the indications, preoperative planning, ...
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Pericardial window: Mechanisms of efficacy
A subxiphoid pericardial window relieves effusions with a low opera- tive ... A 3 x 3-cm swath of pericardium was excised, and all fluid was drained ...
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Outcome evaluation of a thoracoscopic pericardial window ...
Feb 15, 2013 · ... partial pericardectomy via thoracoscopy (with or without mass ... Whether a 4- to 5-cm pericardial window is large enough to palliate ...
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Anatomy, Thorax, Pericardium - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The pericardium is a fibrous sac that encloses the heart and great vessels. It keeps the heart in a stable location in the mediastinum, facilitates its ...
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Pericardial disease—anatomy and function - PMC - PubMed Central
The pericardium is a fibrous sac that surrounds the heart. It consists of two layers: the visceral pericardium and the parietal pericardium. The visceral ...
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Physiology of pericardial fluid production and drainage - PMC - NIH
The pericardium consists of an external sac of fibrous connective tissue, called fibrous pericardium and an internal called serous pericardium. The latter coats ...
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LIVING ANATOMY OF THE PERICARDIAL SPACE - PMC - NIH
To maintain the general position of the heart within the thorax, the outer fibrous pericardium is widely attached to the central tendon of the diaphragm ...
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[PDF] Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Management of Pericardial ...
When conservative treatment and pericardiocentesis fail, pericardio-peritoneal shunting by a pericardial window is a reasonable option.251,252 Alternatively ...
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New Approaches to Management of Pericardial Effusions - PMC - NIH
Jul 1, 2021 · These patients should be treated with pericardial drainage (pericardiocentesis or pericardial window depending on effusion characteristics and ...
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Contemporary outcomes after pericardial window surgery - NIH
Apr 26, 2016 · Pericardial window surgery was indicated to treat a moderate or large pericardial effusion in association with symptoms, hypotension, the need ...Missing: indications | Show results with:indications
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Pericardial windows have limited diagnostic success - PMC - NIH
Jul 18, 2018 · Surgical pericardial drainage procedures, “Pericardial Windows”, are often requested for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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Perioperative implications of pericardial effusions and cardiac ...
This review discusses the pathophysiology and perioperative management of patients with pericardial effusions and cardiac tamponade.
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Thoracoscopic Pericardial Window - CTSNet
Aug 30, 2010 · Pleural symphysis is a relative contraindication for a thoracoscopic window being performed through that hemithorax. Patients with chronic ...
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Chapter 16. Pericardial Window Procedures | Thoracic Anesthesia
Patients presenting for pericardial drainage procedures require a thorough, but often urgent, preoperative evaluation in order to understand the etiology of ...<|separator|>
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Surgical Management Strategies for Pericardial Effusion—A ... - NIH
Jul 14, 2025 · Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery (VATS) for pericardial effusion is a minimally invasive procedure to create a pericardial window and drain ...Missing: preoperative | Show results with:preoperative
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Anterior parasternal approach for creation of a pericardial window
The optimal method for creation of a pericardial window (PW) is still controversial and it remains a surgical challenge, mainly in obese patients.
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Pericardial-Peritoneal Window: A Novel Palliative Treatment ... - NIH
Contrast-enhanced computerized tomography (CECT) revealed disseminated lung cancer, bilateral pleural effusion, and massive pericardial effusion [Figure 1b].
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A Simple Modified Technique of Pleuropericardial Window - PMC
With thoracoscopic pleuropericardial window, better exposure is achieved allowing for the removal of sufficient pericardium to form a wider durable window and ...
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The Pericardial Window: Is a Video-Assisted Thoracoscopy ...
Pericardial window by video-assisted thoracoscopy is an effective technique for pericardial drainage and biopsy. Apart from its diagnostic value, ...
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Safety and feasibility of thoracoscopic pericardial window in ... - NIH
Post-operative care ... All patients were extubated on the table and were haemodynamically stable. Liquids were allowed after 6 h and a soft diet after 12 h.
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Pericardial Window - New Jersey Health System
After Pericardial Window Patients having Pericardial Window typically stay in the hospital 5-7 days. There is one tube draining fluid around the heart. When ...
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Contemporary outcomes after pericardial window surgery: impact of ...
Apr 26, 2016 · Pericardial window surgery via a subxiphoid incision is associated with less postoperative pain and faster time to extubation.
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Surgical Management Strategies for Pericardial Effusion—A ... - MDPI
Subxiphoid pericardial window is the most common approach for draining pericardial effusions. Prognosis depends on both the underlying etiology and the chosen ...
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Pericardial window: mechanisms of efficacy - PubMed
A subxiphoid pericardial window relieves effusions with a low operative mortality and good long-term success (92.9%, 26 of 28).
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The Diagnostic Value of Pericardial Fluid and Pericardial Biopsy
Aug 7, 2025 · This diagnostic yield of pericardial fluid cytology remains low even amongst patients with known malignancy, with a diagnostic yield of 58% [5•] ...
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Ten-Year Surgical Experience With Nontraumatic Pericardial ...
The 2 main surgical approaches to pericardial window have been through the subxyphoid space or the thorax.
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Long-term Results of Surgical Subxiphoid Pericardial Drainage
In conclusion, subxiphoid drainage provides a simple, safe and expeditious treatment of most symptomatic pericardial effusions with one in ten patients ...Missing: outcomes | Show results with:outcomes
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Pericardial Window Operation in Oncology Patients: Analysis ... - NIH
Pericardial window formation is a surgical intervention for refractory PE. However, the long-term outcomes and factors associated with postoperative survival ...
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Pericardial Window Operation in Oncology Patients: Analysis of ...
The surgical creation of a pericardial window is theoretically superior to percutaneous methods in reducing the risk of PE recurrence; however, this benefit ...
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Surgical properties and survival of a pericardial window via left ...
Jun 28, 2012 · Symptomatic recurrence rate was 2.08%. Cancer type and nature of the pericardial effusion were the major factors determining long-term survival ...Missing: short- relief
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Long-Term Outcome of Pericardial Drainage in Cases of Chronic ...
Jul 1, 2020 · Pericardial effusion (PE) prognosis depends on the underlying etiology. We sought to assess the outcome of patients with chronic (>3 months), ...
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Francisco Romero, the First Heart Surgeon
Francisco Romero, a Catalonian physician, became the first heart surgeon when he performed an open pericardiostomy to treat a pericardial effusion in 1801.
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Ludwig Rehn: The First Successful Cardiorrhaphy
The first successful suture of a wound of the heart was performed by Ludwig Rehn in 1896. This landmark operation—set against a background of widespread doubt ...Missing: pericardial | Show results with:pericardial
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Pericardiocentesis in cardiac tamponade: indications and practical ...
Oct 11, 2017 · Contraindications. There are no absolute contraindications to pericardiocentesis when cardiac tamponade and shock occur. Aortic dissection and ...
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History of Cardiac Surgery | Thoracic Key
Dec 25, 2018 · Ludwig Rehn, a surgeon from Frankfurt, Germany, who performed the first successful suture of a human heart wound. (Reproduced with permission ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Subxiphoid pericardial window - PubMed
Subxiphoid pericardial window. Am J Surg. 1970 Nov;120(5):679-80. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9610(70)80192-1. Authors. L J Fontenelle, L Cuello, B N Dooley. PMID ...
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Subxiphoid Pericardial Window: Steps and Helpful Tips - CTSNet
Feb 5, 2019 · But 'pericardial window' it's not connection pericardial cavity with pleural cavity via epigastric approach? ... While it does not allow for ...
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Subxiphoid pericardial window for pericardial effusive disease
Mortality at 30 days was 25% (10/40 patients) in the malignant group and 11% (9/83 patients) in the benign group. No deaths resulted from recurrent effusions.
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CT-Guided Tube Pericardiostomy: A Safe and Effective Technique in ...
Although echocardiographic guidance is a vast improvement over nonguided percutaneous drainage, the imaging window is restricted by ribs and artifacts.<|separator|>
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Echocardiography-guided pericardiocentesis with probe-mounted ...
Fifty-three pericardiocentesis procedures were performed on 48 patients from 1993 to 2000 at our coronary care unit. Percutaneous puncture (anterior ...Missing: CT | Show results with:CT
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Percutaneous balloon pericardiotomy for the treatment of infected ...
Percutaneous balloon pericardiotomy has been used as an alternative for surgically created pericardial window mainly for the management of malignant ...
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Systemic chemotherapy in combination with pericardial window has ...
Systemic chemotherapy in combination with pericardial window has better outcomes in malignant pericardial effusions.Missing: integration | Show results with:integration
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The Role of Pericardial Window Techniques in the Management of ...
In total, there were 16 deaths, a mortality rate of 2%. The use of laparoscopy, point of care ultrasound and subxiphoid pericardial window increased over the ...
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COVID-19 exacerbating ESRD induced pericardial effusion ...
Subxiphoid pericardial window remains a safe and effective procedure as they have an overall success rate of 93.5 %, recurrence rate of 5.5 %, and complication ...Missing: minimally invasive
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Pericardial Disease in Dogs and Cats - Circulatory System
Most cases of pericardial effusion in cats are not severe ... A subtotal pericardiectomy is generally recommended after the third pericardiocentesis.
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Pericardial Effusion in Cats | VCA Animal Hospitals
In some cases, pericardial effusion may be treated with a procedure called a pericardectomy. In a pericardectomy, a small opening (window) is made in the ...Missing: pericardiectomy | Show results with:pericardiectomy
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Thoracoscopic pericardial window for management of ... - PubMed
Thoracoscopic pericardial window is of low morbidity with short surgery and hospitalisation times. It provides good long-term control of idiopathic ...
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MIS Pericardial: Video-Assisted Pericardectomy and Pericardoscopy in Dogs - WSAVA 2016 Congress - VIN
### Summary of Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery (VATS) Pericardial Window in Dogs
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Outcome evaluation of a thoracoscopic pericardial window ...
Feb 15, 2013 · Dogs with idiopathic pericardial effusion treated with a subtotal pericardectomy via thoracotomy had a significantly longer DFI and MST.
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107 cases (1985–2006) - AVMA Journals
Pericardial effusion is a fairly common acquired car- diac condition in dogs. Prevalence has been report- ed to be 0.43% (1/233) for dogs examined at a ...
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Thoracoscopic Pericardial Window and Subtotal Pericardectomy in ...
Sep 27, 2017 · In one study,32 dogs with idiopathic pericardial effusion treated by thoracoscopic creation of a pericardial window had significantly shorter ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Pericarditis: Consider pericardiocentesis and lavage - DVM360
Nov 1, 2006 · 1 Typically horses show signs of right heart failure. Three types of pericarditis have been distinguished: effusive, fibrinous and constrictive.
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Idiopathic effusive pericarditis with tamponade in the horse - PubMed
Pericarditis and pericardial effusion are considered to occur rarely in the horse. The clinical and laboratory features of idiopathic pericarditis with ...Missing: window | Show results with:window
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Thoracoscopic pericardiotomy as a palliative treatment in a cow with ...
Medical treatment, which consisted of repeated pericardiocenteses, placement of indwelling pleural catheters, administration of intravenous fluid therapy, ...Brief Communication · Abstract · History And Physical...Missing: large | Show results with:large<|control11|><|separator|>