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Procainamide

Procainamide is a class Ia antiarrhythmic medication used to treat and manage serious cardiac arrhythmias, including ventricular tachycardia, supraventricular tachycardia, atrial flutter, atrial fibrillation, atrioventricular nodal re-entrant tachycardia, and Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome.^[1] It functions as a sodium channel blocker, binding to cardiac sodium channels in their inactivated state to prolong the action potential duration, extend the effective refractory period, and reduce myocardial excitability and conduction velocity, thereby stabilizing irregular heart rhythms.^[2] Chemically, it is a white to tan, odorless crystalline powder with the molecular formula C₁₃H₂₁N₃O and a molecular weight of 235.33 g/mol, soluble in water and alcohol.^[2] Introduced in the mid-20th century as an analog of procaine, procainamide is administered intravenously for acute settings—such as loading doses of 10-17 mg/kg over 25-30 minutes followed by maintenance infusions of 20-50 mcg/kg/min—or orally for chronic therapy at doses of approximately 50 mg/kg per 24 hours divided every 3-6 hours, though oral formulations are no longer available in the United States, limiting options to injectable forms.^[1]^[3]^[4] Its efficacy has been demonstrated in chemical cardioversion, converting about 52% of atrial fibrillation cases and 28% of atrial flutter episodes, and it outperforms amiodarone in stabilizing hemodynamically stable ventricular tachycardia according to clinical studies.^[1] In pediatric patients, dosing is weight- and age-adjusted, typically starting with 7-15 mg/kg boluses.^[1] While effective, procainamide carries significant risks, including cardiac toxicities such as QRS complex widening, QTc prolongation, and hypotension, as well as non-cardiac effects like gastrointestinal upset, dizziness, and loss of appetite.^[3]^[1] A notable adverse effect is drug-induced lupus erythematosus, occurring in up to 30% of long-term users due to autoantibody formation, which is generally reversible upon discontinuation but requires monitoring for symptoms like arthralgia, rash, and fever.^[2] Other serious concerns include blood dyscrasias (e.g., agranulocytosis, pancytopenia), hypersensitivity reactions, and rare hepatotoxicity, necessitating caution in patients with heart failure, renal or hepatic impairment, electrolyte imbalances, myasthenia gravis, or during pregnancy and breastfeeding.^[1] Contraindications include hypersensitivity to procainamide or related local anesthetics like procaine.^[3] Therapeutic drug monitoring is essential, targeting plasma levels of 4-10 mcg/mL for efficacy while avoiding toxicity above 12 mcg/mL.^[1]

Medical uses

Indications

Procainamide is primarily indicated for the treatment of life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias, including sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT), particularly in patients who do not respond to other therapies such as lidocaine or amiodarone.^[5] According to the 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias, intravenous procainamide is recommended (Class IIa, Level of Evidence C-LD) for hemodynamically stable patients with sustained monomorphic VT, as it can effectively terminate the arrhythmia.^[6] The PROCAMIO randomized trial demonstrated that procainamide achieved tachycardia termination in 67% of patients with tolerated wide QRS tachycardia within 40 minutes, compared to 38% with amiodarone, with fewer major cardiac adverse events (9% vs. 41%).^[7] In acute settings, an initial loading dose of 10-17 mg/kg is administered intravenously over 25-30 minutes at a rate of 20-50 mg/min until the arrhythmia is suppressed or the maximum dose is reached.^[1] Procainamide is also used for supraventricular arrhythmias, including atrial fibrillation (AF), atrial flutter, and paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT), particularly for chemical cardioversion in new-onset cases. The 2023 ACC/AHA/ACCP/HRS Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Atrial Fibrillation recommends intravenous procainamide as a second-line agent (Class IIa) for pharmacological cardioversion of AF or atrial flutter of ≤7 days' duration in a monitored setting, with success rates up to 52% for AF conversion reported in clinical studies.^[8]^[9] It is especially valuable in pre-excited AF with rapid ventricular response, where procainamide or ibutilide is preferred (Class I, Level of Evidence C) to restore sinus rhythm or slow the ventricular rate without compromising hemodynamics.^[9] Off-label uses include suppression of premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) and as an adjunct therapy in Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome. For PVCs, intravenous procainamide has shown efficacy in rapidly suppressing frequent ectopy in select cases, with one study reporting successful suppression in 82% of patients at an average dose of 567 mg, facilitating diagnostic imaging or temporary control.^[10] However, it is not recommended for asymptomatic PVCs due to lack of survival benefit and potential proarrhythmic risks.^[5] In WPW syndrome, procainamide is employed for acute termination of antidromic atrioventricular re-entrant tachycardia in stable patients and for managing pre-excited arrhythmias, prolonging the refractory period of the accessory pathway.^[1]

Administration and dosage

Procainamide hydrochloride is administered via intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), or oral routes, with IV used primarily for acute arrhythmias in emergency settings, IM for intermediate needs such as perioperative arrhythmias, and oral for long-term maintenance therapy where available.^[4]^[1] In the United States, only injectable solutions at 100 mg/mL or 500 mg/mL for IV or IM use are available; oral formulations have been discontinued.^[4] For acute management, an IV loading dose of 10-17 mg/kg is given at a rate of 20-50 mg/min (or 100 mg every 5 minutes, not exceeding 1 g total), followed by a maintenance infusion of 1-4 mg/min titrated to response.^[1]^[4] In jurisdictions where oral formulations are available (e.g., Canada), maintenance dosing typically involves 250-500 mg every 3-6 hours for immediate-release or 500-1000 mg every 6-12 hours for sustained-release, with total daily doses adjusted up to 50 mg/kg based on clinical efficacy and tolerance.^[4] IM dosing, less commonly used, ranges from 100-500 mg per injection for specific procedural arrhythmias, repeated every 4-8 hours as needed.^[11] Therapeutic monitoring includes maintaining plasma concentrations of 4-10 mcg/mL for procainamide and 10-20 mcg/mL for its active metabolite N-acetylprocainamide (NAPA), alongside continuous ECG assessment for QRS widening (discontinue if >50% increase) and blood pressure checks during IV administration.^[12]^[4] Dose adjustments are essential in renal impairment due to prolonged half-life of both procainamide and NAPA; for creatinine clearance <50 mL/min, reduce maintenance doses by 25-50% (e.g., IV infusion to 1-2 mg/min) and extend oral intervals to every 6-12 hours, with further reductions for severe cases (CrCl <10 mL/min).^[4]^[11]

Contraindications and precautions

Contraindications

Procainamide is absolutely contraindicated in patients with complete atrioventricular (AV) block, as the drug suppresses nodal or ventricular pacemakers, potentially leading to asystole.^[5] It is also prohibited in individuals with second- or third-degree AV block without a functioning pacemaker, due to the heightened risk of exacerbating conduction abnormalities and inducing life-threatening arrhythmias.^[1] Administration is strictly avoided in those with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or a history of procainamide-induced lupus-like syndrome, as the drug can aggravate symptoms or trigger autoimmune reactions through its metabolite N-acetylprocainamide.^[5] Relative contraindications encompass hypersensitivity to procaine or other ester-type local anesthetics, which may precipitate idiosyncratic reactions such as acute allergic dermatitis, asthma, or anaphylaxis.^[5] The drug should be avoided in patients with a history of torsades de pointes, given its potential to aggravate this ventricular arrhythmia via prolongation of the QT interval.^[5] Additionally, caution is warranted in myasthenia gravis, where procainamide may worsen muscle weakness through its effects on neuromuscular transmission.^[1] Precautions are essential in patients with preexisting QT prolongation or hypokalemia, as these conditions can amplify procainamide's arrhythmogenic potential and increase the risk of ventricular arrhythmias.^[1] In such cases, the rationale centers on the drug's class IA antiarrhythmic properties, which depress myocardial excitability and conduction, potentially leading to worsened cardiac instability.^[5]

Use in special populations

In pediatric patients, procainamide is used cautiously due to limited data, primarily for refractory ventricular or supraventricular arrhythmias unresponsive to other therapies. Dosing varies by age: for infants under 12 months, a loading dose of 7 to 10 mg/kg administered intravenously over 15 to 30 minutes, followed by a maintenance infusion of 30 to 80 mcg/kg/min; for children 12 months and older, a loading dose of 15 to 18 mg/kg over 25 to 30 minutes, followed by a maintenance dose of 15 to 50 mg/kg/day divided every 6 hours orally or intravenously, with close monitoring of plasma levels to avoid toxicity.^[4]^[1] Therapeutic plasma concentrations of procainamide are targeted at 4 to 8 mcg/mL, while the active metabolite N-acetylprocainamide (NAPA) should remain below 40 mcg/mL to minimize risks such as hypotension or prolonged QT interval.^[1] Geriatric patients require dose adjustments for procainamide due to age-related declines in renal function, which reduce clearance of both the parent drug and NAPA, increasing the risk of accumulation and toxicity. Initial oral dosing should start at lower levels, such as 250 mg every 6 hours, with subsequent titration based on renal function and plasma monitoring, as advancing age independently impairs excretion even when creatinine clearance appears stable.^[11]^[13] For patients with renal impairment, procainamide dosing must be reduced because 40% to 60% of the drug is excreted unchanged in the urine, leading to prolonged half-life and elevated levels in reduced clearance states. A 50% dose reduction is recommended when creatinine clearance (CrCl) is less than 30 mL/min, with maintenance intervals extended to every 8 to 12 hours or longer, and frequent therapeutic drug monitoring to maintain levels within 4 to 12 mcg/mL for procainamide and below 30 mcg/mL for NAPA.^[4]^[14] In severe impairment (CrCl <10 mL/min), further reductions up to two-thirds of the standard dose may be necessary, particularly for intravenous infusions.^[15] In hepatic impairment, minimal dose adjustments are generally required for procainamide itself, as it undergoes primarily renal elimination, but monitoring for accumulation of the hepatic metabolite NAPA is advised due to potential delays in acetylation and clearance. Caution is warranted in moderate to severe liver disease, where a 50% dose reduction may be considered to prevent excessive antiarrhythmic effects or lupus-like syndrome exacerbation.^[1]^[15] Procainamide is classified as FDA Pregnancy Category C, indicating animal studies show potential fetal risk but inadequate human data exist; it crosses the placenta and has been associated with fetal bradycardia or arrhythmias when used near term. Use is recommended only if benefits outweigh risks, preferably at the lowest effective dose in the second or third trimester for maternal arrhythmias, with fetal monitoring.^[16] During lactation, procainamide and NAPA are excreted into breast milk at low concentrations (approximately 10% to 20% of maternal plasma levels), and while infant exposure is minimal, breastfeeding is considered compatible with caution and monitoring for sedation or gastrointestinal upset in the neonate.^[17]

Adverse effects

Common adverse effects

Common adverse effects of procainamide are typically mild and reversible upon discontinuation of the drug, occurring in approximately 9% of patients overall.^[18] Gastrointestinal disturbances are among the most frequently reported, including anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and a bitter taste, affecting 3-4% of patients on oral therapy.^[11] These effects are dose-dependent and more common with higher therapeutic doses.^[11] Cardiovascular effects such as hypotension and bradycardia may occur, particularly with rapid intravenous infusion at rates exceeding the recommended 20-50 mg/min, though they are less frequent at standard oral doses.^[1] Neurological symptoms, including dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, weakness, nervousness, and anxiety, are also reported, often resolving without intervention.^[3]^[19]^[11] Other common effects encompass dermatological reactions like rash and pruritus, as well as loss of appetite and upset stomach.^[11]^[3] These adverse effects are generally self-limiting and do not require specific treatment beyond dose adjustment or cessation.^[11]

Serious adverse effects

Procainamide is associated with several serious adverse effects, primarily occurring with long-term use, that can lead to significant morbidity if not promptly recognized and managed.^[1] One of the most notable complications is drug-induced lupus erythematosus (DILE), which develops in up to 30% of patients on prolonged therapy.^[20] Symptoms typically include arthralgia, rash, and serositis such as pleuritis or pericarditis, often accompanied by fatigue and fever.^[20] Antinuclear antibody (ANA) positivity occurs in 50% to 90% of long-term users, though not all progress to clinical DILE.^[19] The syndrome generally resolves upon drug discontinuation, usually within weeks to months.^[20] Hematologic toxicities represent another critical risk, including agranulocytosis, which carries a 0.5% incidence and is particularly likely within the first 12 weeks of treatment.^[21]^[22] Thrombocytopenia and hemolytic anemia are also reported, often stemming from bone marrow suppression or hypersensitivity reactions.^[1] These conditions can result in severe infections, bleeding, or anemia, necessitating immediate cessation of the drug. Cardiac adverse effects, while procainamide is used to treat arrhythmias, include QT interval prolongation that may precipitate torsades de pointes, a potentially fatal ventricular arrhythmia occurring in less than 1% of cases.^[23] This risk is heightened in patients with underlying electrolyte imbalances or concomitant QT-prolonging medications.^[24] Less common but severe reactions encompass cholestatic jaundice, linked to hypersensitivity and manifesting as fever, rash, and elevated liver enzymes within weeks of initiation, and myopathy, which can cause muscle weakness or respiratory compromise in isolated reports.^[19]^[25] Risk factors for these serious effects include the slow acetylator phenotype, which impairs procainamide metabolism and elevates the likelihood of DILE by prolonging exposure to the parent drug.^[26] Due to these hazards, regular monitoring with complete blood counts weekly for the first three months and periodic thereafter, along with periodic ANA testing, is recommended to detect early signs of toxicity.^[21]^[22]

Overdose

Symptoms of toxicity

Procainamide toxicity typically manifests in patients with supratherapeutic plasma levels, often resulting from overdose or impaired clearance, leading to sodium channel blockade and prolongation of cardiac action potentials.^[1] Cardiovascular symptoms are prominent and can be life-threatening, including severe hypotension due to vasodilation and negative inotropic effects, bradycardia from atrioventricular (AV) node suppression, and widening of the QRS complex exceeding 100 ms or more than 30% from baseline, which signals significant sodium channel toxicity.^[1] Prolonged QT interval, exacerbated by accumulation of the active metabolite N-acetylprocainamide (NAPA), increases the risk of torsades de pointes, while advanced cases may progress to complete AV block, ventricular arrhythmias, or asystole.^[1] Electrocardiographic changes often include progressive AV conduction delays, reflecting the drug's class Ia antiarrhythmic properties.^[1] Neurological manifestations arise from central nervous system penetration at high doses, presenting as confusion, agitation, or hallucinations, with severe toxicity potentially causing seizures or coma.^[1] Gastrointestinal and sensory symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and a bitter taste in the mouth, which may occur early in overdose.^[1] Procainamide has a narrow therapeutic index, with plasma concentrations of 4-10 mcg/mL considered therapeutic for arrhythmia control, while levels above 12 mcg/mL are associated with toxicity, particularly when NAPA levels contribute to cumulative effects.^[1]

Management of overdose

Management of procainamide overdose begins with immediate assessment and stabilization of airway, breathing, and circulation (ABCs), discontinuation of the drug, and continuous monitoring of electrocardiogram (ECG) and vital signs. Patients should be placed on cardiac monitoring to detect arrhythmias, with serial ECGs to evaluate intervals such as QRS duration, PR interval, and QTc. Consultation with a medical toxicologist or regional poison control center is recommended for guidance.^[1]^[27]^[28] For QRS widening due to sodium channel blockade, intravenous sodium bicarbonate (1-2 mEq/kg) is administered to narrow the QRS complex and counteract toxicity. In severe, life-threatening cases refractory to other measures, such as cardiac arrest, intravenous lipid emulsion therapy may be considered as rescue treatment, with a typical bolus of 1.5 mL/kg of 20% lipid emulsion. No specific antidote exists for procainamide, but these interventions target its class Ia antiarrhythmic effects.^[27]^[29]^[1] Supportive care includes intravenous fluids and vasopressors or inotropes for hypotension, atropine for bradycardia, temporary pacing for high-degree atrioventricular block, and benzodiazepines for seizures. Unstable tachyarrhythmias may require cardioversion, while torsades de pointes is treated with magnesium. For recent oral ingestions, activated charcoal can be considered for decontamination if the patient is alert with an intact airway. In cases of renal failure or severe toxicity, hemodialysis is indicated to enhance elimination, as it effectively removes both the parent drug and its active metabolite.^[27]^[28]^[11]^[30] Ongoing monitoring involves serial measurements of plasma procainamide and NAPA levels to guide therapy and assess response, along with electrolytes (particularly potassium and magnesium) and renal function. Additional class Ia or Ic antiarrhythmics should be avoided due to potentiation of toxicity. Most patients recover fully with prompt supportive care and specific interventions, though outcomes depend on the severity and timeliness of treatment.^[1]^[11]^[27]

Drug interactions

Pharmacokinetic interactions

Procainamide undergoes primarily renal elimination, with approximately 50% excreted unchanged and the remainder metabolized to its active metabolite N-acetylprocainamide (NAPA) via hepatic N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2)-mediated acetylation.^[1] Pharmacokinetic interactions with procainamide typically involve alterations in its absorption, renal clearance, or metabolite formation, necessitating dose adjustments to prevent toxicity. Cimetidine, an inhibitor of renal tubular secretion, significantly reduces procainamide clearance. In healthy volunteers, coadministration of cimetidine increased the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) of procainamide by 35% and decreased its renal clearance from 347 to 196 mL/min, primarily due to competition for active tubular secretion.^[31] In elderly patients with mild to moderate renal impairment, cimetidine raised steady-state procainamide concentrations by 55% and NAPA levels by 36%, with apparent oral clearance decreasing by 41%, leading to potential toxicity in up to one-third of cases.^[32] Similar effects on NAPA renal clearance were observed, underscoring the need for procainamide dose reduction by 25-50% when initiating cimetidine therapy, along with therapeutic drug monitoring.^[31] Genetic variability in acetylator status influences NAPA formation from procainamide. Fast acetylators exhibit a plasma NAPA-to-procainamide ratio of approximately 1.8 three hours post-dose, reflecting higher metabolite production (up to 40% of the dose converted to NAPA), whereas slow acetylators show ratios of approximately 0.6, with lower NAPA levels (about 25% conversion).^[33] In patients with impaired renal function, where NAPA elimination is prolonged due to its reliance on glomerular filtration and tubular secretion, fast acetylators are at greater risk of NAPA accumulation, potentially enhancing antiarrhythmic efficacy but also increasing the risk of toxicity such as QT prolongation.^[1] Acetylator phenotyping or monitoring of the NAPA-to-procainamide ratio can guide dosing in such scenarios.^[34] Antacids containing aluminum hydroxide may impair the rate of procainamide absorption without significantly affecting overall bioavailability. In canine models, aluminum hydroxide reduced the maximum plasma concentration of oral procainamide but had no impact on the AUC or time to peak, suggesting delayed gastric emptying or adsorption as mechanisms.^[35] Magnesium oxide showed no effect on procainamide pharmacokinetics in similar studies.^[35] Although human data are limited, spacing antacid administration by at least two hours from procainamide doses is recommended to avoid potential delays in absorption.^[36] Drugs that compromise renal function, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), indirectly affect procainamide elimination by reducing glomerular filtration rate and tubular secretion. Procainamide and NAPA clearance decline proportionally with creatinine clearance below 30 mL/min, leading to accumulation and prolonged half-lives (up to 11 hours for procainamide and 40 hours for NAPA in severe impairment).^[1] Concurrent use with nephrotoxic agents like NSAIDs warrants renal function monitoring and procainamide dose reduction—typically by one-third for maintenance infusions in moderate impairment or halved in severe cases—to maintain therapeutic levels (4-10 mcg/mL for procainamide, 10-20 mcg/mL for NAPA).^[4]

Pharmacodynamic interactions

Procainamide, as a class Ia antiarrhythmic agent that primarily blocks sodium channels to slow cardiac conduction, can engage in pharmacodynamic interactions with other drugs that amplify or antagonize its effects on cardiac electrophysiology and contractility. These interactions often arise from shared mechanisms, such as prolongation of the QT interval or depression of myocardial function, leading to heightened risks of arrhythmias or hemodynamic instability.^[21] Combination with other antiarrhythmics, such as amiodarone or sotalol, results in additive QT interval prolongation due to complementary effects on repolarization, substantially increasing the risk of torsades de pointes. For instance, intravenous procainamide and oral amiodarone each independently extend the rate-corrected QT interval, but their coadministration produces greater cumulative prolongation of both QRS duration and QT interval, exacerbating ventricular arrhythmogenic potential. Similarly, pairing procainamide with sotalol enhances class III-mediated potassium channel blockade alongside class Ia sodium channel inhibition, further elevating torsades risk in susceptible patients.^[37]^[38]^[39] Procainamide's negative inotropic properties can synergize with beta-blockers or calcium channel blockers, intensifying myocardial depression and potentially precipitating or worsening heart failure. When combined with beta-blockers like metoprolol or propranolol, procainamide may cause additive bradycardia, atrioventricular (AV) block, and hypotension through compounded suppression of cardiac contractility and conduction. This interaction necessitates close monitoring, as procainamide's direct negative inotropic effects on the myocardium are amplified in compromised hearts.^[40]^[1]^[41] Although procainamide exhibits mild anticholinergic activity by reducing acetylcholine release at motor nerve endings, its synergy with other anticholinergic agents like atropine is typically minimal and rarely clinically significant. However, concurrent use may produce additive antivagal effects on AV nodal conduction, potentially altering heart rate regulation in sensitive individuals.^[21]^[40]^[42] Procainamide's proarrhythmic effects are heightened when coadministered with agents like cisapride or erythromycin, owing to combined blockade of sodium and potassium channels that promotes QT prolongation and torsades de pointes. Erythromycin, in particular, exhibits additive electrophysiologic effects with procainamide, including enhanced repolarization abnormalities, which can precipitate ventricular arrhythmias. Cisapride, though withdrawn from many markets, similarly interacts via shared hERG potassium channel inhibition, underscoring the need to avoid such combinations.^[40]^[43]^[44] In cases involving digoxin, procainamide can increase the risk of AV block through synergistic slowing of AV nodal conduction, as both agents independently depress conduction velocity. This interaction has been documented in clinical scenarios where combined use led to enhanced bradycardia and conduction delays, requiring vigilant electrocardiographic monitoring.^[15]^[45]^[46]

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Procainamide is classified as a class Ia antiarrhythmic agent, primarily exerting its therapeutic effects through use-dependent blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels, particularly the cardiac isoform NaV1.5. This blockade occurs with high affinity for the open and inactivated states of the channel and intermediate dissociation kinetics, inhibiting the recovery of sodium channels after repolarization. As a result, phase 0 depolarization is slowed, myocardial excitability is reduced, and conduction velocity is decreased in atrial, ventricular, and Purkinje fibers.^[1]^[47]^[48] In addition to its sodium channel effects, procainamide exhibits mild inhibition of the rapid delayed rectifier potassium current (IKr), mediated by hERG channels, which prolongs the action potential duration and contributes to QT interval prolongation. This potassium channel blockade is concentration-dependent and more pronounced at higher doses. The active metabolite N-acetylprocainamide (NAPA), formed via hepatic acetylation, enhances the class III antiarrhythmic properties by primarily blocking IKr with greater selectivity than the parent drug, further extending action potential duration without substantially affecting sodium channel recovery. NAPA's contribution is significant, as it lacks the strong sodium-blocking activity of procainamide but amplifies repolarization prolongation, particularly in scenarios of slow heart rates.^[49]^[50] Procainamide also demonstrates weak antagonism at muscarinic M3 receptors, conferring mild anticholinergic activity that reduces vagal tone and can lead to modest increases in heart rate. This effect is less potent than that of quinidine and is mediated by direct binding to cardiac muscarinic receptors, with NAPA showing even weaker affinity. Electrophysiologically, these actions culminate in an increase in the effective refractory period across the atria, ventricles, and Purkinje fibers, promoting arrhythmia suppression without significant beta-adrenergic blockade. The prolongation of refractoriness is more marked in atrial tissue and helps prevent re-entrant circuits, though it occurs to a lesser extent in ventricular myocardium compared to pure class III agents.^[51]^[52]^[2]

Pharmacokinetics

Procainamide exhibits high oral bioavailability of 75-95%, with peak plasma concentrations typically reached within 1 to 2 hours after oral administration.^[43] Intravenous administration results in rapid onset of action within minutes.^[1] The drug distributes widely throughout the body, with an apparent volume of distribution of approximately 2 L/kg.^[43] It demonstrates low plasma protein binding of 15-20% and is reversibly bound to tissues such as the heart, liver, lungs, and kidneys.^[5] Procainamide crosses the placenta and is present in breast milk but achieves only minimal concentrations in the brain, indicating poor penetration of the blood-brain barrier.^[5] Metabolism primarily occurs in the liver through acetylation by N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) to form the active metabolite N-acetylprocainamide (NAPA), accounting for 16-21% of the dose in slow acetylators and 24-33% in fast acetylators.^[5] Genetic polymorphism in NAT2 leads to variability in acetylation rates, classifying individuals as slow or fast acetylators and influencing NAPA production. Minor oxidation pathways involve CYP2D6 to form reactive metabolites, but these are not predominant.^[53] Elimination is predominantly renal, with 30-60% of the dose excreted unchanged via active tubular secretion and glomerular filtration, and 6-52% as NAPA.^[43] The elimination half-life is 3-5 hours for procainamide and 6-8 hours for NAPA under normal renal function, but both are prolonged in renal impairment due to reduced clearance.^[5]^[2] Therapeutic monitoring focuses on plasma levels of the total active moiety (procainamide plus NAPA), with a target range of 10-30 mcg/mL to ensure efficacy while minimizing toxicity.^[54] Levels should be adjusted in patients with renal dysfunction, and combined monitoring of both parent drug and metabolite is recommended, particularly in those with genetic acetylation variations.^[34]

Chemistry

Structure and properties

Procainamide has the molecular formula C₁₃H₂₁N₃O and a molecular weight of 235.33 g/mol for the free base form.^[2] In clinical use, it is administered as the hydrochloride salt, which has the formula C₁₃H₂₂ClN₃O and a molecular weight of 271.78 g/mol.^[55] The chemical structure of procainamide features a 4-aminobenzamide core substituted at the amide nitrogen with a 2-(diethylamino)ethyl group.^[2] It is derived from procaine, a local anesthetic, but differs by replacing the ester linkage in procaine with a more stable amide bond, which reduces susceptibility to hydrolysis.^[43] Physically, procainamide hydrochloride appears as a white to tan, hygroscopic, odorless crystalline powder.^[2] It has a pKa of 9.23, indicating basic character, and a melting point of 165–169 °C.^[21] The compound exhibits moderate lipophilicity, with a logP value of approximately 0.88.^[2] Procainamide hydrochloride is highly soluble in water (about 1 g per 3 mL), as well as in alcohol and chloroform, but practically insoluble in ether. This solubility profile supports its formulation as aqueous injectable solutions for intravenous or intramuscular administration. Regarding stability, the compound is sensitive to light, with exposure to UV light leading to yellow discoloration and gradual degradation, and to oxidation, particularly under alkaline conditions.^[56] Aqueous solutions remain stable at pH 3–5, where hydrolysis and oxidative processes are minimized.^[57]

Synthesis

Procainamide is primarily synthesized through the amidation of 4-nitrobenzoyl chloride with N,N-diethylethane-1,2-diamine, followed by selective reduction of the nitro group to the corresponding amino group. The amidation proceeds via the Schotten-Baumann reaction, in which the acid chloride reacts with the primary amine in an aqueous alkaline medium, typically using sodium hydroxide as the base to neutralize the generated HCl and facilitate the formation of the amide bond. This step yields 4-nitro-N-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl]benzamide as an intermediate. The nitro group in the intermediate is then reduced to the amine functionality, most commonly through catalytic hydrogenation employing palladium on carbon (Pd/C) as the catalyst under mild conditions, such as atmospheric pressure and room temperature in ethanol or ethyl acetate solvent. This reduction step is highly selective, preserving the amide linkage and the tertiary amine moiety, resulting in procainamide with high purity after workup. An alternative synthetic route begins with procaine, which is first hydrolyzed under acidic or basic conditions to afford 4-aminobenzoic acid. The resulting carboxylic acid is then activated—often as the acid chloride—and coupled with N,N-diethylethane-1,2-diamine under Schotten-Baumann conditions to form the target amide. The classical industrial process for procainamide production was established in the 1940s, achieving overall yields exceeding 80% through multi-step operations and final purification by recrystallization from aqueous ethanol or similar solvents to isolate the hydrochloride salt.

History

Development

Procainamide was developed during the late 1940s in response to the quinidine shortage during World War II, which stemmed from the loss of access to Indonesia as a primary source of cinchona alkaloids used in its production, following Japanese occupation.^[58] This scarcity prompted pharmaceutical research into synthetic alternatives with similar antiarrhythmic properties. Researchers focused on modifying procaine, a local anesthetic recognized since 1936 for its potential antiarrhythmic effects but limited by its extremely short duration of action due to rapid hydrolysis by plasma esterases.^[58] To overcome procaine's limitations, the ester linkage was replaced with an amide group, yielding procainamide as a more stable analog resistant to enzymatic breakdown.^[59] This structural change extended the drug's half-life to approximately 3–4 hours, compared to procaine's roughly 1 minute, while maintaining sodium channel blocking activity and reducing unwanted local anesthetic side effects.^[58] Preclinical evaluations in the late 1940s confirmed procainamide's efficacy in suppressing arrhythmias through sodium channel blockade, as demonstrated in models such as frog nerve preparations and isolated rabbit heart tissues.^[60] Screening of amide analogs of procaine led to the selection of procainamide for its potent antiarrhythmic effects in animal studies, including dogs subjected to induced ventricular fibrillation.^[61] Key contributions came from researchers including L.C. Mark and colleagues, who reported on its physiological disposition and cardiac effects in early investigations.^[62] Initial findings highlighted its ability to prolong the refractory period and slow conduction in cardiac tissue, establishing it as a viable quinidine substitute with oral and intravenous administration potential.^[61]

Regulatory approval

Procainamide was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on June 2, 1950, under the brand name Pronestyl for both oral and injectable administration to treat cardiac arrhythmias. It was launched by Bristol-Myers Squibb in 1951.^[63] This approval marked its introduction as a sodium channel blocker in the class Ia antiarrhythmic category, intended for managing life-threatening ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias.^[1] Internationally, procainamide received approval from the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and is recognized in various national markets for arrhythmia treatment.^[63] It was included on the World Health Organization (WHO) Model List of Essential Medicines starting with the inaugural 1977 edition (Technical Report Series 615) for cardiac arrhythmias, remaining listed until its removal in 2009 due to the availability of safer alternatives.^[64] The original brand name Pronestyl has been discontinued in the United States, primarily due to manufacturing decisions by the sponsor, though generic versions of procainamide hydrochloride remain available in oral and injectable forms.^[5] A sustained-release formulation was marketed as Procanbid, approved by the FDA in 1996 and supplemented in 2002, but like Pronestyl, brand-name production has ceased with reliance shifting to generics.^[65]^[66] Post-marketing surveillance led to the addition of a black box warning highlighting risks of agranulocytosis (occurring in approximately 0.5% of patients) and drug-induced systemic lupus erythematosus, which can develop with prolonged use and requires immediate discontinuation upon onset.^[67] Due to potential for severe hypotension and proarrhythmic effects, especially with intravenous administration, the FDA labeling restricts parenteral use to hospital settings equipped for cardiac monitoring and intensive care.^[11] Procainamide is classified as a prescription-only medication worldwide, with no over-the-counter availability. Injectable forms experienced multiple shortages in the 2010s attributed to manufacturing delays and increased demand, prompting FDA interventions; as of 2020, supply had stabilized through expanded generic production from manufacturers like Amphastar, though intermittent shortages, including from Pfizer, have continued into 2025.^[68]

References

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### Summary of Procainamide (https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a682398.html)
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### Summary of PROCAMIO Study Findings
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2014 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for the Management of Patients With ...
Mar 28, 2014 · 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation ... Intravenous procainamide or ibutilide to restore ...
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Jan 27, 2021 · Procainamide successfully suppressed premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) in 82% of patients, resulting in high-quality images.
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Sep 3, 2025 · Loading dose: 15 to 18 mg/kg administered as slow infusion over 25 to 30 minutes or 100 mg/dose at a rate not to exceed 50 mg/minute repeated every 5 minutes ...Renal Dose Adjustments · Precautions · DialysisMissing: acute | Show results with:acute
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Jul 20, 2025 · For treatment of arrhythmias associated with anesthesia or surgical operation, the suggested dose is 100 to 500 mg by intramuscular injection.
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Slow acetylators will have a low NAPA/procainamide ratio. The therapeutic plasma concentration of procainamide is generally thought to be in the range of 4–12 ...
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Procainamide injection is used to treat irregular heartbeats and to slow an overactive heart. When the heart has a normal heartbeat (rhythm), it will work more ...
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Jun 1, 2016 · Because about 50% of a procainamide dose is eliminated unchanged by the kidney, renal dysfunction is the most important disease state that ...Basic Clinical... · Effects Of Disease States... · Steady-State Concentration...
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Medscape - Indication-specific dosing for Procanbid, Pronestyl (procainamide) ... FDA-approved labeling information, unless otherwise noted, combined with ...
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Sep 3, 2025 · Procainamide should only be given during pregnancy when benefit outweighs risk. Procainamide (PA) has been used safely in the third trimester of ...Missing: lactation | Show results with:lactation
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Jul 15, 2024 · Maternal doses of procainamide 2 grams daily produced low levels of the drug and its active metabolite in the milk of one mother.Missing: pregnancy safety
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Out of a total of 488 recipients 9.2% had one or more adverse effect attributed to the drug; common effects being arrhythmias, gastro-intestinal upsets and ...
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Jul 10, 2020 · Long term procainamide therapy is known to induce hypersensitivity reactions, autoantibody formation and a lupus-like syndrome but is a rare ...
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Apr 3, 2023 · Procainamide and hydralazine have the highest incidence of causing DIL, with risks reported as high as 30% with procainamide and 5% to 10 ...
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procainamide hydrochloride
Elevated serum creatinine or urea nitrogen, reduced creatinine clearance or history of renal insufficiency, as well as use in older patients (over age 50), ...Missing: elderly | Show results with:elderly
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Procainamide Level Reference Range
May 17, 2022 · Description. Procainamide hydrochloride is a class 1a antiarrhythmic that is used to treat a wide variety of ventricular and atrial arrhythmias.
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Antiarrhythmic drugs and torsade de pointes - PubMed
Quinidine, disopyramide and procainamide (with its metabolite N-acetyl procainamide) are strongly concordant in the production of torsade de pointes. Such ...
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Drug-Induced Torsade de Pointes | Circulation
A 12-lead ECG after intravenous procainamide demonstrates sinus rhythm with QT prolongation and prominent U waves. I, II, III, aVR, aVL, aVF, V1 through V6 ...
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Procainamide-induced myositis - PubMed
The patient reported in this paper developed a severe, rapidly progressive vasculitis, apparently limited to muscle, after taking procainamide for 42 months, ...
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May 29, 2025 · Slower acetylation may play a role in the greater predisposition for elderly persons to develop DILE. However, the higher rates of DILE in ...
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Apr 15, 2021 · Patients with potential toxicity should be carefully monitored for cardiac adverse events and management will involve symptomatic and ...
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Pediatric antiarrhythmics and toxicity: A clinical review - ScienceDirect
The generalized management approach for all antiarrhythmic toxicities in Table 2 is recommended for acute procainamide toxicity, including treatment of TdP.
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Aug 5, 2025 · It may cause significant side effects. Lipid emulsion therapy should be reserved for life-threatening toxicity (e.g., cardiac arrest) that has ...
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Hemodialysis doubled the rate of procainamide elimination and increased fourfold the clearance of NAPA, the N-acetylated metabolite of procainamide.
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The data suggests that cimetidine inhibits the tubular secretion of both procainamide and n-acetylprocainamide, and, if so, represents the first documented ...
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05). Cimetidine therapy given to older male patients taking procainamide can cause steady-state concentrations of procainamide to rise to toxic levels. Patients ...
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The plasma NAPA/procainamide ratio 3 hr after the last dose for fast acetylators (mean plus or minus SD) is 1.8 plus or minus 0.59 (N equal to 8) and for slow ...
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... NAPA ratio less than 1 at 3 hours after the dose is administered. Slow acetylators (PA:NAPA ratio >2 after 3 hours) are more likely to present with systemic ...
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The influence of aluminium hydroxide and magnesium oxide on the oral bioavailability of quinidine, procainamide and propranolol in the dog was investigated.
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Oct 14, 2012 · Antacid-drug interactions may occur secondary to changes in gastrointestinal motility or alterations in gastric and urinary pH.
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As single agents, intravenous procainamide and oral amiodarone produced equivalent increases in QRS duration, rate-corrected QT interval, right ventricular ...
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Comparison of individual and combined effects of procainamide and ...
Procainamide and amiodarone similarly increased the VT cycle length ( + 68 vs. + 61 msec), the corrected QT interval (+63 vs. +49 msec), and the ventricular ...
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Long QT Syndrome With Drugs Used in the Management of ...
Jul 31, 2024 · QT prolongation can be a side effect of several antiarrhythmic drugs, such as amiodarone, sotalol, dofetilide, procainamide, quinidine, and ...
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procainamide - Drug Summary - PDR.Net
CrCl > 60 mL/min: No initial dosage adjustment is required. CrCl 35 to 59 ... renal impairment; use lower initial doses and adjust as required. Dosage ...
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IV procainamide is used to treat SVT associated with the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, atrial flutter, and ventricular dysrhythmias unresponsive to lidocaine.
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Procainamide (applies to procainamide) anticholinergic activity. Procainamide decreases the release of acetylcholine from skeletal muscle motor nerve endings. ...
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Procainamide is sodium channel blocker. It stabilizes the neuronal membrane by inhibiting the ionic fluxes required for the initiation and conduction of ...<|separator|>
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Digoxin may increase the atrioventricular blocking (AV block) activities of Dronedarone. ... Digoxin may increase the arrhythmogenic activities of Procainamide.Identification · Pharmacology · Interactions · References
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Procainamide is a Class Ia AAD that inhibits cardiac INa with high affinity for the open state of the Na+ channel and intermediate dissociation kinetics. It ...
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Procainamide (PA) is classified as a class IA antiarrhythmic drug because it decreases the maximum upstroke velocity (Vmax) of the cardiac action potential at ...
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The N-acetylation of procainamide leads to the pharmacologically active compound, N-acetylprocainamide (NAPA). The loss of propensity to block depolarization ...
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Both drugs increased heart rate, with lowering of mean blood pressure during the second part of procainamide infusion, but not during NAPA infusion. 3. Binding ...
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Free deliveryThe half-life of procainamide is two to six hours and for NAPA is eight hours. Rate of metabolism is genetically determined (slow and fast acetylator types) ...
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Procainamide hydrochloride reversibly binds to and blocks activated (open) voltage-gated sodium channels, thereby blocks the influx of sodium ions into the cell ...
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Stability of Procainamide Injection in Clear Glass Vials and Polyvinyl ...
An alkali degradation sample was prepared by adding 5N sodium hydroxide to 10 mL of procainamide stock solution (pH ≈ 11.6) and heating in a dry heat block set ...
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Lowering the pH from the normal 4.5 to 1.4 with 0.01 N hydrochloric acid completely prevented complex formation.1422. Similarly, increasing the solution pH to 8 ...
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procainamide - Drug Central
A class Ia antiarrhythmic drug that is structurally-related to PROCAINE. Molecular weight: 235.33; Formula: C13H21N3O; CLOGP: 1.42; LIPINSKI: 0; HAC: 4 ...
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WARNING - DailyMed
Dec 21, 2016 · WARNING: The prolonged administration of procainamide often leads to the development of a positive anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) test, with or ...
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Pfizer has procainamide injection on shortage due to manufacturing delays. Available Products. Procainamide Hydrochloride injection, Amphastar, 100 ...Missing: 2010s resolved 2020