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Robot locomotion

Robot locomotion encompasses the mechanisms and strategies that enable mobile robots to navigate and traverse diverse environments by generating self-propelled motion through interactions with surfaces or media, such as applying forces via actuators to achieve translation, rotation, or elevation.^[1] This field draws from biological inspirations like animal gaits and human-engineered solutions like vehicular propulsion, focusing on achieving efficient, stable, and adaptable movement for applications in exploration, manufacturing, and disaster response.^[2] Key types of robot locomotion include wheeled systems, which prioritize efficiency on flat terrains using configurations like differential drive or Ackermann steering; legged mechanisms, which provide superior adaptability to uneven or obstacle-laden surfaces through static or dynamic stability in bipeds, quadrupeds, or hexapods; and hybrid approaches combining wheels with legs for versatility in mixed environments.^[3] Tracked systems offer robust traction in rough conditions, while aerial and aquatic variants employ propellers or undulatory motions for flight or swimming, respectively.^[1] These categories address specific environmental demands, with wheeled and tracked dominating industrial uses due to simplicity and low energy consumption on prepared surfaces.^[3] Challenges in robot locomotion revolve around maintaining balance, optimizing energy use—where legged systems can be up to 100 times less efficient than wheeled on smooth ground—and adapting to heterogeneous terrains like sand or rubble, often requiring dynamic control to prevent tipping or slippage.^[3] Advances integrate interdisciplinary approaches, such as robophysics for modeling interactions with complex media and machine learning for real-time gait optimization in legged robots, enhancing robustness in unstructured settings.^[2] Notable examples include humanoid bipeds like ASIMO for human-like walking and bio-inspired hexapods like RHex for agile traversal of debris.^[1]^[4]

Overview and Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Robot locomotion refers to the ability of robotic systems to move autonomously or semi-autonomously through diverse environments by integrating mechanical structures, such as legs, wheels, or propellers, with control algorithms that ensure stability and navigation.^[5] This capability distinguishes mobile robots from stationary ones, focusing on propulsion and traversal rather than fixed manipulation tasks.^[6] The scope of robot locomotion encompasses a wide range of environments, including terrestrial ground surfaces, aerial spaces, aquatic mediums, and extraterrestrial settings like planetary surfaces.^[7] It excludes purely static operations, emphasizing adaptive mobility across structured industrial floors, unstructured natural terrains, and extreme conditions such as underwater currents or low-gravity vacuums.^[5] Robot locomotion plays a pivotal role in enabling critical tasks, including environmental exploration, dynamic manipulation in unpredictable settings, and assistive functions for human operators, thereby expanding robotic applications beyond controlled environments.^[8] In industries, it drives economic impacts through enhanced efficiency in manufacturing processes and rapid deployment in disaster response scenarios, such as search-and-rescue operations in rubble or hazardous zones.^[9] Key performance metrics for evaluating locomotion include speed (e.g., up to 1.0 m/s in dynamic legged systems), energy efficiency measured by specific resistance or cost of transport (with human benchmarks at 0.2 and advanced robots approaching 0.5–0.7), terrain adaptability for rough or uneven surfaces, and payload capacity (e.g., up to 20 kg in compliant designs).^[6]

Historical Development

The development of robot locomotion began in the mid-20th century, drawing heavily from cybernetics and early artificial intelligence research that emphasized feedback control systems inspired by biological processes. Norbert Wiener's 1948 publication Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine introduced key principles of self-regulation and adaptation in machines, influencing subsequent designs for mobile robots.^[10] In the late 1940s, British neurophysiologist W. Grey Walter created the first autonomous mobile robots, known as tortoises or Machina speculatrix, which used photoelectric cells for obstacle avoidance and demonstrated basic phototactic behavior without pre-programmed paths. By the 1960s, these ideas culminated in Shakey the Robot, developed at Stanford Research Institute from 1966 to 1972, marking the first general-purpose mobile robot capable of perceiving its environment via cameras and lasers, planning actions, and executing wheeled navigation in unstructured spaces.^[11] The 1970s and 1980s saw the transition toward more sophisticated autonomous and legged systems, shifting focus from simple teleoperated platforms to computer-controlled mobility. The Stanford Cart, originally built in the 1960s for lunar rover simulation, was upgraded in the 1970s and demonstrated in 1979 as the first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle to navigate a cluttered room using stereo vision for obstacle avoidance, traveling at very low speeds, covering about 1 meter every 10-15 minutes.^[12] Concurrently, legged locomotion gained traction with early quadruped prototypes; for instance, in the late 1960s and 1970s, researchers like Robert McGhee developed the Phony Pony, an electrically actuated quadruped that used static stability for walking gaits, paving the way for digital control advancements.^[13] In the 1980s, Marc Raibert's Leg Laboratory at Carnegie Mellon University (founded 1980) pioneered dynamic legged robots, including one-legged hoppers that achieved stable, high-speed locomotion through decoupled control of stance, balance, and speed, influencing future multi-legged designs.^[14] From the 1990s to the 2000s, bio-inspired designs and large-scale challenges accelerated progress in bipedal and autonomous vehicle locomotion. Honda's humanoid robot research, initiated in 1986, led to the unveiling of ASIMO in 2000, which achieved stable bipedal walking at 1.6 km/h using zero-moment point control for balance, representing a breakthrough in human-like gait for humanoids.^[15] The DARPA Grand Challenge races, starting in 2004, spurred autonomous wheeled vehicle development; while the 2004 Mojave Desert event saw no vehicle complete the 240 km course due to navigation failures, the 2005 iteration was won by Stanford's Stanley vehicle, which used LIDAR, GPS, and AI planning to traverse rugged terrain at average speeds of 22 km/h, catalyzing the autonomous driving industry.^[16] In 2009, the iCub open-source humanoid platform further advanced bipedal locomotion research by enabling collaborative development of compliant walking and manipulation capabilities.^[17] In the 2010s and up to 2025, advancements integrated artificial intelligence, soft materials, and dynamic control for more versatile locomotion, with milestones in humanoid and collective systems. Boston Dynamics' Atlas, unveiled in 2013 under DARPA's Robotics Challenge, introduced hydraulic actuation for robust bipedal and whole-body mobility, enabling parkour-like maneuvers such as backflips by 2017 through model predictive control.^[18] NASA's Valkyrie (R5), revealed in 2013 and deployed for testing in 2015, featured series elastic actuators for compliant humanoid locomotion in space environments, supporting tasks like tool manipulation while prioritizing safety in human-robot interaction.^[19] By the 2020s, AI-driven soft robotics enhanced adaptability, with compliant mechanisms allowing undulating or crawling gaits in unstructured terrains, as seen in hybrid designs combining rigid frames with soft limbs for energy-efficient movement.^[20] Recent 2025 developments emphasize swarm robotics for collective locomotion, where decentralized vision-based groups achieve polarized motion and collision avoidance without central coordination, enabling scalable tasks like environmental mapping.^[21] Overall, these evolutions have been driven by a shift from rigid, teleoperated mechanisms—prevalent in early prototypes—to compliant structures and full autonomy, facilitated by advances in sensing, computation, and machine learning that enable real-time adaptation.^[22]

Core Principles and Challenges

Kinematics and Dynamics

Kinematics in robot locomotion refers to the study of motion without considering the forces that cause it, focusing on the geometric relationships between joints and links to determine positions, velocities, and accelerations. For multi-link systems such as legged robots, forward kinematics computes the end-effector pose (e.g., foot position) from given joint angles, while inverse kinematics solves for joint angles to achieve a desired pose, often involving iterative numerical methods due to potential multiple solutions. The Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameters provide a standardized convention for modeling serial kinematic chains, defining four parameters—link length a_i, link twist \alpha_i, joint angle \theta_i, and link offset d_i—to construct homogeneous transformation matrices between adjacent frames. Originally developed for manipulators, DH parameters have been adapted to locomotion systems like quadruped robots by assigning frames along leg links, enabling efficient computation of gait trajectories on uneven terrain.^[23] Dynamics extends kinematics by incorporating forces and torques, modeling how masses, inertias, and external interactions influence motion in robotic systems. The Newton-Euler formulation is widely used for legged robots, recursively propagating linear and angular accelerations from the base to the end-effectors while accounting for joint torques and ground reaction forces. This approach applies Newton's second law for linear motion, \sum \vec{F} = m \vec{a}, and for rotational motion, \sum \vec{\tau} = I \vec{\alpha}, where m is mass, \vec{a} is linear acceleration, I is the moment of inertia, and \vec{\alpha} is angular acceleration. In contrast to wheeled robots, which primarily involve rolling constraints and simpler planar dynamics, legged systems require handling intermittent contacts and impact forces, often leading to hybrid dynamic models that switch between stance and swing phases. A key metric for legged dynamics is the zero-moment point (ZMP), defined as the point on the ground where the net moment of inertial and gravity forces is zero, serving as an indicator for dynamic stability during walking without tipping.^[24]^[25] Energy considerations in robot locomotion involve balancing kinetic energy, given by \frac{1}{2} m v^2 for translational motion and \frac{1}{2} I \omega^2 for rotational, with potential energy m g h during terrain navigation, where g is gravitational acceleration and h is height. Efficient locomotion minimizes energy dissipation by synchronizing these forms, such as converting potential to kinetic energy in downhill gaits, which is particularly challenging in legged robots due to higher mechanical complexity compared to wheeled ones. Simulation tools like Gazebo, an open-source physics engine integrated with ROS, and MATLAB's Robotics System Toolbox enable modeling these kinematics and dynamics by simulating rigid body interactions, contact forces, and energy flows in virtual environments before hardware deployment.^[6]^[26]

Stability, Balance, and Control

Stability in robot locomotion encompasses both static and dynamic forms to ensure the robot maintains equilibrium during movement. Static stability is achieved when the vertical projection of the robot's center of mass (CoM) falls within the convex support polygon defined by the points of contact with the ground, preventing tipping under quasi-static conditions typical in slow or paused locomotion.^[27] This concept is fundamental for legged robots, where the support polygon shrinks during single-support phases, demanding precise foot placement to keep the CoM projection inside its boundaries.^[28] In contrast, dynamic stability addresses faster motions where inertial forces play a role, relying on criteria like the zero-moment point (ZMP), introduced by Vukobratović in the 1970s as the point on the ground where the net moment of all forces equals zero.^[25] For dynamic stability, the ZMP must remain within the support polygon to avoid rotational instability, enabling sustained locomotion even when the CoM projection temporarily exits this area due to momentum.^[29] Balance control in robots employs feedback mechanisms to regulate posture and counteract deviations. Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers form the basis of many low-level balance systems, adjusting joint torques based on error in position, accumulated error, and rate of change to stabilize upright configurations in humanoid and wheeled balancing robots.^[30] The ZMP criterion integrates into these loops by computing real-time ZMP positions from kinematic models and applying corrective actions, such as ankle or hip torques, to keep it within the support base and prevent falls.^[31] In flying robots, gyroscopic stabilization leverages angular rate sensors to dampen rotational disturbances, maintaining attitude through proportional-derivative feedback that counters gyroscopic precession from propellers in quadrotors.^[32] Control architectures for locomotion often adopt hierarchical structures to coordinate stability across scales. Low-level layers use PID for joint-level torque control, while higher levels handle gait planning by generating reference trajectories that respect stability constraints like ZMP positioning.^[33] Model predictive control (MPC) enhances this by optimizing future trajectories over a horizon, minimizing deviations in CoM or ZMP while accounting for dynamics, as demonstrated in quadrupedal robots where convex MPC formulations enable robust ground reaction force planning for stable turns and perturbations.^[34] Key challenges in stability and balance arise from environmental perturbations, such as uneven terrain or external pushes, which can shift the ZMP outside the support polygon and induce falls if not rapidly corrected.^[35] These disturbances demand adaptive control to replan foot placements or modulate joint stiffness in real-time, particularly on compliant or sloped surfaces where dynamic effects amplify instability.^[36] Performance in balance control is evaluated using metrics like recovery time from disturbances, which quantifies the duration to restore stable gait after a perturbation, often measured in seconds for bipedal recovery from pushes.^[37] Gait cycle periodicity assesses locomotion regularity by analyzing the consistency of stride intervals, where stable periodic orbits indicate robust limit cycles in passive or actuated models, with deviations signaling instability.^[38]

Classification of Locomotion Types

Legged and Walking Mechanisms

Legged locomotion in robots involves discrete foot placements to propel the system across surfaces, enabling navigation over uneven or obstacle-laden terrains that challenge wheeled alternatives. This mechanism mimics biological appendages, with robots typically employing 2 to 12 legs arranged in bipedal, quadrupedal, or multi-legged configurations. Each leg often features 6 to 12 degrees of freedom (DoF) to approximate joint complexities found in nature, allowing for precise foot positioning and orientation during movement. Bipedal walking, prevalent in humanoid robots, divides the gait cycle into stance and swing phases: during stance, one or both feet bear the body's weight while the swing leg lifts and advances forward. Dynamic walking paradigms, such as passive dynamic walkers, leverage gravity and momentum for energy-efficient motion without active control during portions of the cycle. A seminal example is Marc H. Raibert's early prototypes and Tad McGeer's 1989 compass-gait biped, which descended slopes using unpowered legs that naturally fell forward under gravity, achieving stable walking with minimal actuation. In contrast, active bipedal systems like Honda's ASIMO incorporate powered joints to maintain balance and adapt to flat or inclined surfaces, though they consume more energy due to continuous corrections. Quadrupedal and multi-legged mechanisms distribute load across multiple supports for enhanced stability, employing gaits such as trotting—where diagonal leg pairs alternate—or galloping, which involves a suspension phase for faster speeds over rough ground. In quadrupeds like Boston Dynamics' BigDog, weight shifts dynamically between legs to prevent tipping, with sensors detecting terrain variations to adjust foot placement. Multi-legged designs, such as hexapods or octopods, further improve fault tolerance by allowing continued motion even if one leg fails, as demonstrated in insect-inspired robots that maintain stability through tripod gaits. Central pattern generators (CPGs) provide rhythmic neural-like signals to coordinate these leg movements, generating oscillatory patterns for smooth progression without constant high-level computation. The primary advantages of legged mechanisms lie in their superior terrain adaptability, enabling traversal of stairs, rocks, and debris where continuous-contact systems falter. However, these benefits come at the cost of high energy consumption—often 10-100 times that of wheeled robots due to repeated lifting and precise actuation—and increased mechanical complexity from multiple joints and actuators. Passive systems mitigate energy demands by relying on mechanical dynamics, while active ones prioritize versatility, as seen in DARPA Challenge robots navigating rubble. Stability during walking draws from principles like zero-moment point (ZMP) criteria, though detailed control strategies extend beyond this scope. Bio-inspired gaits enhance these mechanisms by emulating animal limb coordination for efficiency.

Wheeled and Rolling Mechanisms

Wheeled mechanisms represent a primary form of continuous-contact locomotion in robotics, enabling efficient movement across prepared surfaces such as floors, roads, or planetary regolith through rotational contact points that minimize slippage and energy loss.^[3] These systems prioritize speed and simplicity over adaptability to extreme irregularities, making them ideal for indoor navigation, warehouse automation, and extraterrestrial exploration on relatively even terrain.^[39] Differential drive configurations, a staple in two-wheeled mobile robots, achieve steering by varying the speeds of two independently powered wheels mounted on a common axle, allowing for precise control of linear velocity and rotation without additional actuators.^[40] This setup enables tight turns, including in-place rotation when wheels move in opposite directions, and is favored for its mechanical simplicity, low cost, and ease of implementation in platforms like service robots and educational kits.^[41] The kinematic model relates forward velocity v = \frac{v_r + v_l}{2} and angular velocity \omega = \frac{v_r - v_l}{b}, where v_r and v_l are right and left wheel velocities, and b is the axle length, facilitating straightforward path planning.^[40] Ackermann steering emulates automotive kinematics in car-like robots, employing a front-wheel steering mechanism where the wheels turn at varying angles to trace a common turning center, reducing tire scrub during low-speed maneuvers.^[42] In contrast, omnidirectional wheels such as Mecanum designs incorporate rollers angled at 45 degrees around the wheel's circumference, permitting holonomic motion where the robot translates in any direction and rotates independently without reorienting its body.^[43] This configuration supports vector-based velocity control, enabling applications in confined spaces like assembly lines, though it requires more complex motor synchronization to maintain stability.^[43] Rolling alternatives extend wheeled principles beyond traditional tires, with spherical robots utilizing internal mass shifts or pendulum mechanisms to induce omnidirectional rolling via barycentric offset, allowing seamless navigation in 360 degrees without dedicated steering.^[44] Track-based systems, employing caterpillar-style continuous belts, provide enhanced traction on rougher terrains by distributing weight over a larger contact area, as seen in rescue and inspection robots that outperform wheeled setups on loose gravel or inclines.^[45] These tracks facilitate skid-steering through differential belt speeds, improving obstacle traversal while maintaining the efficiency of rolling contact.^[46] Wheeled and rolling mechanisms offer low energy consumption due to reduced friction on hard surfaces, often achieving efficiencies orders of magnitude higher than legged alternatives, alongside high operational speeds up to 6.2 m/s in advanced prototypes.^[47] However, they exhibit poor performance on obstacles exceeding the wheel or track diameter, as the rigid contact limits vertical adaptation and increases the risk of high-centering or slippage on uneven ground.^[3] Standard configurations feature 2 to 4 wheels for balance and maneuverability, with differential drive common in two-wheeled setups and four-wheeled arrangements providing redundancy for stability during payload transport.^[40] Suspension systems, including passive spring-damper setups or active rocker-bogie linkages, dampen vibrations and maintain ground contact, crucial for preserving sensor accuracy and component longevity on mildly irregular surfaces.^[39] A notable application of skid-steering appears in NASA's Mars Perseverance rover (landed 2021), where six independently motorized wheels enable tight turns via differential friction and speeds, combined with selective steering on front and rear wheels for 360-degree pivots, allowing navigation of rocky terrain with a turning radius as small as the rover's width.^[48]

Hopping and Jumping Mechanisms

Hopping and jumping mechanisms in robotics enable ballistic locomotion, characterized by discontinuous ground contact and explosive propulsion to traverse rough terrain or overcome obstacles. These systems alternate between stance phases, where the robot absorbs impact and stores energy, and flight phases, where it follows a parabolic trajectory through the air. Unlike continuous walking gaits, hopping relies on dynamic stability to manage intermittent support, making it suitable for environments with significant irregularities.^[49] Monopodial hopping, involving a single actuated leg, represents a foundational approach pioneered in the 1980s. Marc Raibert's one-legged hopper at MIT utilized a spring-loaded linear hydraulic actuator to simulate leg compliance, allowing the robot to compress during stance for energy storage and extend rapidly for takeoff. The 3D one-legged hopping machine demonstrated stable bounding by decoupling control into stance (vertical force regulation for height), flight (body attitude adjustment), and stance-to-flight transitions (leg angle timing for forward velocity). This design achieved stable one-legged bounding at speeds up to 2.2 m/s, highlighting the feasibility of dynamic balance in three dimensions.^[50]^[49] Multi-legged jumping mechanisms draw inspiration from insects like grasshoppers, which employ catapult-like energy storage in their hind legs through slow muscle contraction followed by rapid release via sclerotized structures. Bio-inspired robotic designs replicate this with compliant legs that preload elastic elements during preparation, enabling high-power jumps. For instance, the EPFL miniature jumping robot uses a motorized linkage to store energy in a spring, achieving jumps over obstacles more than 27 times its 5 cm body height, with takeoff velocities up to 3.35 m/s. Such systems distribute load across multiple legs for enhanced stability during landing compared to monopodial variants.^[51] A key advantage of hopping and jumping is superior obstacle clearance, allowing robots to surmount barriers several times their height—up to 27 times in scaled designs—facilitating navigation in cluttered or uneven landscapes where wheeled or walking systems falter. However, intermittent ground contact introduces instability challenges, as the robot must actively correct orientation and velocity during flight without continuous feedback, often leading to higher energy demands for recovery.^[51]^[49] Control strategies emphasize precise timing of leg extension to shape jump trajectories, with feedback from inertial sensors regulating apex height and horizontal speed. Energy efficiency is enhanced through elastic elements that recycle impact energy, as seen in series elastic actuators (SEAs), which interpose springs between motors and joints to store and release power passively during stance. SEAs reduce peak power requirements by up to 50% in hopping cycles compared to rigid actuators, improving endurance for repeated jumps.^[49]^[52]

Slithering and Serpentine Mechanisms

Slithering and serpentine mechanisms in robotics emulate the flexible, undulating motion of snakes to enable navigation through confined, irregular, or obstructed environments. These systems typically employ hyper-redundant structures composed of 10-20 interconnected segments, allowing for a high degree of freedom in bending and twisting.^[53] Configurations often feature modular links connected by pitch-yaw joints, which permit planar and out-of-plane movements, with actuation achieved through tendon-driven systems or servo motors for precise control of segment orientation.^[54] Propulsion in these mechanisms relies on friction-based anisotropy, where the robot's body experiences differential frictional forces—higher laterally to anchor against the ground and lower longitudinally to facilitate forward sliding.^[55] Undulatory gaits, such as lateral undulation (serpentine waving) and rectilinear progression (straight-line extension-contraction), propagate waves along the body to generate thrust, while sidewinding elevates portions of the body to minimize slippage on uneven or loose terrains like sand or rubble.^[56] These mechanisms excel in maneuverability, allowing passage through tight spaces such as pipes or debris fields, as demonstrated by Carnegie Mellon University's Modular Snake Robot developed in the 2000s for urban search and rescue operations, which can navigate gaps as narrow as 20 cm.^[57] However, their reliance on sequential body deformations results in relatively slow speeds, typically ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 m/s, limiting applicability in open or time-sensitive scenarios.^[53]

Swimming and Aquatic Mechanisms

Robot locomotion in aquatic environments relies on propulsion systems adapted to fluid dynamics, where drag and buoyancy play central roles in movement efficiency and stability. Unlike terrestrial or aerial locomotion, underwater mechanisms must generate thrust against denser fluid resistance while maintaining neutral buoyancy to minimize energy expenditure. These systems are broadly categorized into fin-based and propeller-driven approaches, each suited to specific mission requirements such as stealth, endurance, or speed.^[58] Fin-based swimming mechanisms mimic biological structures, using oscillating or undulating fins to produce thrust through periodic motions that create vortex shedding and forward propulsion. These biomimetic designs, such as the RoboTuna developed at MIT in the 1990s, replicate the flapping of fish tails and pectoral fins to achieve efficient, agile movement in water. The RoboTuna, for instance, employed an eight-link body and tail system to study hydrodynamics, demonstrating stable swimming speeds up to 1.2 m/s with fish-like turning rates of 75 degrees per second. Such systems excel in maneuverability and energy efficiency by leveraging undulatory waves that reduce drag compared to rigid propulsors.^[59]^[60] Propeller-driven mechanisms, common in autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), utilize thrusters to generate vectored thrust for precise control and navigation. These systems direct propeller output through adjustable nozzles or multiple fixed thrusters, enabling maneuvers like yaw, pitch, and depth adjustments without additional control surfaces. Vectored thrust configurations enhance low-speed handling, allowing AUVs to hover or perform station-keeping tasks effectively.^[61] Aquatic locomotion offers advantages including silent operation in fin-based designs, which avoids acoustic detection in sensitive environments, and long endurance in propeller-driven AUVs, often exceeding 20 hours per mission. However, these mechanisms face disadvantages such as limited speeds in strong currents, typically operating at 0.5-5 m/s, where fluid forces can disrupt trajectory stability.^[58]^[62] Key hydrodynamic principles govern these systems, with drag force calculated as F_d = \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 C_d A, where \rho is fluid density, v is velocity, C_d is the drag coefficient, and A is the cross-sectional area; this quadratic relationship underscores the energy demands of increasing speed. Buoyancy compensation is essential, often achieved through adjustable ballast or syntactic foam to maintain neutral buoyancy, preventing excessive power use for vertical control.^[63]^[64] A representative example is the REMUS AUV developed by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution around 2000-2001, which uses propeller thrusters for seabed mapping missions, achieving ranges of approximately 100 km at cruising speeds of 1.5 m/s.^[62]

Flying and Aerial Mechanisms

Flying and aerial mechanisms in robot locomotion enable sustained three-dimensional navigation through the air, primarily by generating lift and thrust to counteract gravity and achieve controlled flight. These systems are essential for applications requiring rapid coverage of large areas or access to elevated or obstructed environments, such as surveillance, mapping, and delivery. Unlike ground-based or aquatic locomotion, aerial mechanisms operate in a low-density medium where aerodynamic forces dominate, demanding precise control to maintain stability and efficiency.^[65] Fixed-wing aerial robots, including gliders and drones, rely on aerodynamic lift generated by forward motion over a stationary wing to sustain flight. These designs mimic traditional aircraft, where the wing's shape creates a pressure differential to produce upward force, allowing efficient long-distance travel once airborne. Takeoff typically requires external assistance, such as catapults for launch or short runways for self-propelled acceleration, as fixed-wing robots cannot hover or vertically takeoff without additional propulsion.^[66]^[67] In contrast, rotary-wing mechanisms, exemplified by quadcopters, use multiple rotating blades to generate vertical thrust for hovering and omnidirectional maneuverability. Control is achieved through variations in rotor speed or, in advanced tilt-rotor configurations, by angling the rotors to vector thrust for directional changes, enabling precise positioning without forward momentum. This hover capability distinguishes rotary-wing robots from fixed-wing designs, facilitating operations in confined spaces like urban inspections.^[68]^[65] Aerial mechanisms offer significant advantages, including rapid traversal speeds up to 20 m/s for efficient area coverage and inherent obstacle avoidance through elevation changes, which outperform ground-based systems in complex terrains. However, they face drawbacks such as high energy consumption due to continuous propulsion needs, often limiting battery-powered flight to around 30 minutes, necessitating frequent recharging or refueling for extended missions.^[69]^[70]^[71] The foundational aerodynamics of these systems is captured by the lift equation, L = \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 C_l A, where L is lift, \rho is air density, v is velocity, C_l is the lift coefficient, and A is wing area; this relation underscores how speed and design parameters directly influence sustained flight. Stability in aerial robots is maintained through gyroscopes, which detect angular rates and enable real-time corrections to counteract disturbances like wind gusts, ensuring reliable orientation during maneuvers.^[72]^[73] The DJI Phantom series, introduced in 2013, revolutionized consumer aerial robotics by providing stable, user-friendly quadcopters that democratized access to aerial imaging and flight control technologies. As of 2025, advancements in electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) vehicles have accelerated urban air mobility, with innovations in battery efficiency and autonomous systems enabling scalable passenger transport in congested cities.^[74]^[75]

Brachiating, Climbing, and Gripping Mechanisms

Brachiating mechanisms in robots emulate the arm-swinging locomotion of gibbons, enabling efficient traversal between overhead supports through pendulum-like dynamics that minimize energy expenditure by leveraging gravitational potential.^[76] In this process, the robot alternately grips and releases supports while swinging its body as an inverted pendulum, converting kinetic energy from one swing to the next for sustained motion without continuous propulsion.^[77] Seminal designs, such as three-link brachiators, model the full-order dynamics and optimize swing cycles using control problems to achieve stable progression over discrete handholds.^[78] Climbing mechanisms facilitate vertical or inclined surface traversal by employing adhesion techniques tailored to diverse substrates, including magnetic adhesion for ferrous materials, suction for smooth non-porous surfaces, microspines for rough terrains like rock faces, and gecko-inspired dry adhesives that rely on van der Waals forces for reversible attachment without residue.^[79] Gecko-mimetic adhesives, developed from nanostructured synthetic setae, enable robots to adhere to walls with shear strengths up to 100 kPa, supporting payloads in microgravity or uneven environments.^[80] NASA's Limbed Excursion Mechanical Utility Robot (LEMUR), introduced in the 2000s and advanced to LEMUR 3 by 2017, exemplifies planetary climbing with four limbs ending in microspine grippers that hook into rock fissures, allowing vertical ascent on steep cliffs up to 90 degrees for extraterrestrial exploration.^[81] Gripping mechanisms are integral to both brachiation and climbing, featuring end-effectors such as compliant claws that adapt to irregular shapes through underactuated designs, achieving force closure by distributing contact forces to prevent slippage without precise alignment.^[82] These grippers often incorporate soft materials for conformal contact, ensuring stability during dynamic swings or ascents by maintaining multiple points of friction or penetration. Recent advancements include 2025 soft grippers enhanced with electroadhesion, which apply tunable electrostatic fields to augment holding forces on dielectrics, enabling versatile grasping of fragile or smooth objects with low power consumption.^[83] These mechanisms provide robots with access to elevated, overhead, or vertical terrains inaccessible to wheeled or legged systems on flat ground, such as urban facades, planetary cliffs, or forest canopies, though they are constrained by relatively low speeds—typically under 1 m/s—and limited payload capacities due to adhesion strength dependencies on surface conditions.^[84]

Metachronal and Inchworm Mechanisms

Metachronal mechanisms in robot locomotion involve coordinated, wave-like motion across multiple legs or segments, inspired by the sequential leg movements observed in millipedes. In these systems, propulsion arises from phase delays between adjacent elements, creating a traveling wave that propagates along the robot's body, typically from posterior to anterior. This pattern ensures that only a subset of legs or cilia are in contact with the substrate at any time, generating net forward thrust through asymmetric friction or hydrodynamic forces. For instance, in magnetically actuated microrobots, a precessing magnetic field induces oscillations in ferromagnetic particles arranged in a raft, with phase shifts of approximately 60 degrees between neighboring elements, resulting in translational speeds on the order of 0.1 body lengths per cycle.^[85]^[86] Inchworm mechanisms, by contrast, rely on alternating phases of anchoring and extension within a segmented body, mimicking the grasping and stretching motions of biological inchworms. The robot anchors its front or rear segment via high-friction grips or pneumatic expansion while extending the opposite end through contraction or elongation of intermediate sections, then switches anchors to advance. This discrete, linear progression is particularly suited for confined environments like pipes or lumens, where continuous motion might cause slippage. Soft robotic implementations often use dielectric elastomers or shape memory alloys for actuation, enabling diameters as small as 1.4 cm for endoscopic navigation in intestinal tracts.^[87]^[88] The underlying mechanics of both metachronal and inchworm locomotion center on peristaltic contractions, where sequential radial expansions and contractions propagate along the body, combined with friction modulation between segments and the environment. In metachronal systems, phase-encoded magnetization or pneumatic timing creates differential drag, with "power strokes" pushing against the substrate while "recovery strokes" minimize resistance. Inchworm designs achieve similar effects through bistable anchors that increase friction during grip phases (e.g., via setae-like bristles) and reduce it during extension, converting internal forces into directed propulsion without external linkages. These approaches yield compact, low-degree-of-freedom designs that reduce vibrational disturbances compared to wheeled or legged alternatives.^[89]^[90]^[91] Advantages of metachronal and inchworm mechanisms include their inherent stability on uneven or narrow terrains, minimal space requirements for deployment, and reduced mechanical complexity, making them ideal for inspection tasks in pipelines or medical devices. However, they suffer from relatively low speeds, typically ranging from 0.004 to 0.04 m/s, limiting their use in applications requiring rapid traversal. An illustrative example is an untethered inchworm robot developed at EPFL in the 2010s, utilizing shape memory alloy oscillators for propulsion in constrained spaces, demonstrating reliable anchoring in diameters around 1 cm for potential endoscopic use.^[92]^[93] Hybrid and multi-modal mechanisms in robot locomotion integrate multiple distinct locomotion modes into a single platform, enabling robots to switch between gaits or propulsion methods to navigate diverse terrains that challenge single-mode systems. These designs often employ modular or reconfigurable architectures to combine, for instance, wheeled efficiency on flat surfaces with legged stability on uneven ground, thereby enhancing overall versatility without requiring entirely separate robots. Such systems draw from engineering principles to address limitations in specialized locomotion, prioritizing seamless transitions that minimize downtime and optimize performance across environments. Design integration in hybrid mechanisms frequently relies on modular attachments or reconfigurable structures that allow dynamic reconfiguration during operation. For example, wheels-to-legs hybrids use detachable or foldable components to alternate between rolling for speed and legging for obstacle traversal, reducing mechanical redundancy while maintaining adaptability. A seminal example is the M-TRAN (Modular Transformer) system, developed in the early 2000s, which consists of homogeneous cubic modules connected via magnetic or mechanical links to form various 3D configurations for locomotion, such as snake-like slithering or quadrupedal walking. This self-reconfiguration capability enables the robot to adapt its morphology on-the-fly, with each module providing rotational degrees of freedom for versatile motion generation.^[94] Multi-modal switching involves algorithms that manage transitions between modes, often balancing factors like terrain demands and energy consumption to ensure smooth and efficient operation. These algorithms typically employ optimization frameworks, such as approximate dynamic programming, to model mode-specific dynamics and select paths that minimize total energy while accounting for switching costs, like reconfiguration time or mechanical stress. For instance, in hybrid locomotion planning, trade-offs are quantified by assigning penalty costs to modes based on their energy expenditure—wheeled modes may offer lower power use on smooth surfaces but higher failure risk on rough terrain, whereas legged modes provide robustness at the expense of speed and battery drain. Such approaches have been demonstrated in simulations and hardware, achieving up to 20-30% energy savings through mode-aware path planning compared to fixed-mode traversal.^[95]^[96] The primary advantages of hybrid and multi-modal mechanisms lie in their adaptability to heterogeneous environments, such as transitioning from ground-based rolling to aerial flight for obstacle avoidance or from terrestrial walking to aquatic swimming in amphibious scenarios, thereby expanding operational domains in search-and-rescue or exploration tasks. However, these benefits come with disadvantages, including increased system complexity from additional actuators and control logic, which can elevate weight by 15-50% and raise failure risks due to interconnected components. Energy trade-offs further complicate design, as multi-mode systems often consume more power during transitions than dedicated single-mode robots, necessitating advanced battery management.^[97] Notable examples illustrate these principles in practice. Transformable drones equipped with landing legs, such as bio-inspired designs mimicking avian perching, enable aerial navigation followed by grounded walking or hopping, achieving horizontal jumps up to 23 body lengths for efficient obstacle clearance and relaunch. Aquatic-terrestrial hybrids, like magnetically actuated soft millirobots, combine crawling on land with swimming in water via compliant materials that deform under external fields, demonstrating multimodal propulsion in confined spaces. In underground navigation, the 2021 DARPA Subterranean Challenge winner, Team CERBERUS, deployed a hybrid system-of-systems integrating legged quadrupeds (e.g., ANYmal), wheeled crawlers, and flying drones to map and traverse complex cave networks, scoring 23 artifacts detected out of 40 through coordinated mode switching.^[98]^[99]

Bio-Inspired Approaches

Biological Analogues and Adaptations

Robot locomotion frequently draws from biological systems to achieve efficient and stable movement across diverse environments. In terrestrial settings, insect-inspired multi-legged designs leverage the inherent stability provided by multiple contact points with the ground, allowing robots to traverse uneven or compliant terrains without falling, much like ants or cockroaches maintain balance through distributed leg support.^[100] This approach contrasts with fewer-legged systems, where stability decreases during single-support phases, highlighting the advantage of insect-like redundancy for robust locomotion in dynamic conditions.^[101] Similarly, mammal-inspired gaits, such as the trot or gallop observed in quadrupeds like dogs or horses, prioritize energy efficiency by synchronizing limb movements to minimize mechanical work and metabolic cost during forward progression.^[102] These gaits emerge naturally in robotic systems when optimizing for reduced energy expenditure, mirroring how animals transition between walking and running to sustain speed with lower power input.^[103] Aquatic locomotion analogues focus on fluid-efficient propulsion. Fish employing carangiform undulation, where the posterior body and tail oscillate to generate thrust, inspire robotic designs that achieve high-speed swimming through streamlined body waves, converting lateral movements into forward momentum via reactive forces from the surrounding water.^[104] This mode, seen in species like mackerel, balances speed and maneuverability by limiting undulation to the rear third of the body, a principle directly mapped to undulating robotic fish for effective thrust in low-speed regimes.^[58] In contrast, jellyfish utilize jet propulsion by rhythmically contracting their bell-shaped body to expel water, creating pulsed bursts of movement that enable energy-efficient travel over long distances with minimal structural complexity.^[105] Bio-inspired jellyfish robots replicate this by inflating and deflating soft chambers, achieving propulsion speeds comparable to natural counterparts while consuming low energy, particularly suited for stationary hovering or slow cruising in underwater environments.^[106] Recent advances include a 2025 bioinspired multimotion underwater microrobot that switches between swimming modes for enhanced maneuverability in complex aquatic environments.^[107] Aerial biological strategies emphasize agility and sustained flight. Bird-inspired flapping mechanisms, involving wing upstrokes and downstrokes with feathering adjustments, enable superior maneuverability for rapid turns and obstacle avoidance, as demonstrated in robotic birds that replicate avian kinematics to perform self-takeoff and precise trajectory control.^[108] This flapping generates both lift and thrust cyclically, allowing efficient navigation in cluttered spaces akin to how pigeons or falcons execute aerobatic maneuvers.^[109] For hovering capabilities, insect wing designs—featuring rapid, asymmetric flapping at high frequencies—provide stable stationary flight through vortex shedding and leading-edge vortices, inspiring microrobots like RoboBees that flap at 120 Hz to maintain altitude and direction without rotors.^[110] These systems achieve insect-scale hovering by mimicking the clap-and-fling motion of flies, which amplifies aerodynamic forces for payload support in still air.^[111] Adapting these biological analogues to robotics requires addressing key challenges in scaling and materials. Scaling issues arise from differences in Reynolds number, a dimensionless parameter governing fluid flow regimes; at micro-scales typical of insects or small fish (low Re ~1-100), viscous forces dominate, necessitating designs that exploit drag rather than inertia, unlike macro-scale robots where inertial effects (high Re >10^4) alter propulsion efficiency and stability.^[112] This mismatch demands compensatory kinematics, such as adjusted flapping amplitudes, to replicate biological performance across size disparities.^[113] Material substitutions further bridge the gap, with silicone elastomers serving as analogues for biological muscles due to their high compliance, strain recovery, and dielectric properties that enable voltage-driven contraction similar to actin-myosin interactions.^[114] These soft materials allow robots to mimic the flexibility of natural tissues, enhancing durability and adaptability in bio-inspired actuators.^[115] A prominent example of mammalian adaptation is the MIT Cheetah robot, developed in 2012 and inspired by the cheetah's bounding gait for high-speed terrestrial sprinting, which achieved untethered running speeds of up to 10 mph (16 km/h) while maintaining dynamic balance through leg compliance and spinal flexion emulation.^[116] Subsequent iterations, like Cheetah 2, extended this to 13.7 mph (22 km/h), demonstrating energy-efficient galloping that rivals biological efficiency at scale.^[117]

Design Principles from Nature

Biomimicry in robot locomotion translates biological principles into engineering designs by emulating natural forms, functions, and processes to enhance efficiency, adaptability, and robustness. This approach draws from evolutionary adaptations observed in animals, focusing on methodologies that bridge biology and robotics without directly replicating hardware components. Key to this translation are structured levels of biomimicry that guide the design process. At the morphological level, designs replicate the physical shape and structure of biological systems to optimize locomotion dynamics, such as leg configurations that mimic animal limb arrangements for stability on uneven terrain. Material-level biomimicry incorporates compliance and elasticity inspired by natural tissues, enabling robots to absorb impacts and conform to environments through soft, deformable elements that reduce energy loss during movement. Behavioral-level biomimicry emulates gaits and motion patterns, like alternating limb coordination in quadrupeds, to achieve fluid, energy-efficient traversal across varied substrates. To adapt these biological insights into functional robotic systems, engineers employ computational techniques such as finite element analysis (FEA) for simulating biomimetic structures, allowing prediction of stress distribution and deformation in compliant components under dynamic loads. Similarly, evolutionary algorithms optimize gait parameters by iteratively evolving motion sequences, mimicking natural selection to minimize energy consumption and maximize speed in bio-inspired legged robots. A major challenge in applying these principles is overcoming size scaling effects, where larger robots face limitations in speed and agility due to gravitational forces; for instance, the Froude number, which relates inertial to gravitational forces, imposes speed limits on legged systems, as smaller biological analogues like insects achieve higher dimensionless speeds than scaled-up robotic counterparts. Central principles include leveraging passive dynamics for energy efficiency, such as tendon-like mechanisms that store and return elastic energy during locomotion cycles, reducing the need for continuous active actuation. Additionally, sensory fusion inspired by animal proprioception integrates multiple feedback signals—such as joint angles and ground contact forces—to enable real-time adaptation, enhancing stability without relying on complex centralized control. A notable application is Harvard's soft exosuit developed in the 2010s, which augments human locomotion and assists in load-carrying tasks by reducing metabolic energy expenditure by up to 23%.^[118] Recent developments include a 2025 bio-inspired adjustable posture quadruped robot that uses symmetrical mechanisms for height and width control, enabling navigation across diverse terrains with improved stability.^[119]

Engineering and Control Methods

Actuators and Propulsion Systems

Electric motors are widely used in robot locomotion due to their reliability and controllability. DC servo motors, which integrate a DC motor with a feedback mechanism, enable high precision in angular positioning and speed control, making them suitable for applications requiring accurate trajectory following in robotic arms and mobile platforms.^[120] Stepper motors, by contrast, provide discrete step-based movement for open-loop positioning without needing encoders, offering precise joint control in legged robots where incremental steps ensure stable gait patterns.^[121] Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators deliver high power density, essential for heavy-duty locomotion in rugged environments. Hydraulic systems, utilizing fluid pressure to generate force, achieve superior force output relative to size, as demonstrated in the BigDog quadruped robot developed in 2005, which employed hydraulic cylinders for dynamic walking and load-carrying up to 150 kg over uneven terrain.^[122]^[123] Pneumatic actuators, powered by compressed air, complement these in scenarios demanding rapid extension and compliance, though they typically exhibit lower force density than hydraulics but excel in lightweight, clean operations for industrial manipulators.^[124] Soft actuators facilitate compliant and biomimetic motion in unstructured settings. Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs), consisting of elastomeric films sandwiched between compliant electrodes, deform under electrostatic fields to produce large strains (up to 100%) and silent operation, ideal for soft grippers and crawling robots that require adaptability to irregular surfaces.^[125] Shape-memory alloy (SMA) actuators, such as nickel-titanium wires, contract upon heating via electrical current, enabling reversible bending in soft robotic limbs with muscle-like contraction ratios of 4-8%, though with slower response times compared to electric motors.^[126] Propulsion systems vary by environment to optimize traction and efficiency. For aerial and aquatic locomotion, thrusters—such as propeller-based units or jet propulsors—generate directed thrust; for instance, underwater thrusters provide vectored propulsion for autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), achieving speeds up to 2 m/s while minimizing drag.^[127] In flying robots, similar electric ducted fans serve as thrusters for stable hovering and maneuverability. Ground-based robots often employ wheels for high-speed traversal on flat surfaces or tracks for enhanced stability and obstacle negotiation, as in tracked mobile robots that distribute weight to reduce soil compaction in off-road applications.^[128] Efficiency in actuators is quantified by metrics like power-to-weight ratio, which balances output against mass to extend operational endurance; electric motors typically achieve 0.5 W/g, while hydraulic systems can offer high power density in certain configurations but incur efficiency losses from fluid viscosity.^[129] These actuators integrate with control systems for synchronized behaviors, though detailed feedback loops are addressed in navigation methodologies. Robot locomotion relies on sophisticated sensing systems to perceive the environment and the robot's own state, enabling informed decision-making for movement. Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) are widely used to determine orientation and acceleration, providing essential data for maintaining balance and estimating pose in dynamic scenarios. For instance, foot-mounted IMUs enhance stabilization on challenging terrains by capturing rapid changes in motion.^[130] LiDAR and camera sensors facilitate environmental mapping by generating 3D point clouds and visual features, respectively, which are crucial for detecting obstacles and constructing spatial representations. LiDAR offers depth information independent of lighting conditions, making it particularly effective for precise geometry capture in structured or unstructured settings.^[131] Force sensors, often integrated into wheels or feet, provide terrain feedback by measuring contact forces and slippage, allowing robots to adapt gait or speed to surface variations like gravel or mud. These sensors help estimate external resistive forces, improving traversal efficiency in off-road environments.^[132] Navigation in robot locomotion involves localizing the robot within its environment while building or updating maps, particularly in unknown or GPS-denied areas. Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) is a foundational technique for this purpose, enabling robots to incrementally construct a map and estimate their pose concurrently using sensor data. The seminal Sparse Extended Information Filter (SEIF) algorithm by Thrun exemplifies scalable SLAM implementations for large-scale environments.^[133] For outdoor applications, Global Positioning System (GPS) integration provides absolute positioning, fused with onboard sensors to achieve robust waypoint navigation over extended distances. This approach supports precise trajectory following in open terrains, such as agricultural fields or forests, where differential GPS can yield centimeter-level accuracy.^[134] Path planning algorithms compute feasible trajectories from current to goal positions, accounting for obstacles and kinematics. The A* algorithm, a grid-based heuristic search method, efficiently finds optimal paths in known environments by balancing exploration cost and estimated distance to the goal, making it suitable for structured indoor navigation. For handling dynamic obstacles and high-dimensional spaces, Rapidly-exploring Random Trees (RRT) generate collision-free paths probabilistically by sampling configurations and extending a tree toward random points, ensuring completeness in complex, cluttered settings. The original RRT framework by LaValle has been foundational for nonholonomic robot planning.^[135] Integration of these components occurs through sensor fusion techniques, which combine noisy measurements into reliable estimates. Kalman filters are commonly employed for this, recursively predicting and updating the robot's state based on models of motion and observations. The update equation refines the state estimate as follows:

\hat{x} = x + K (z - H x)

where \hat{x} is the updated state, x is the predicted state, K is the Kalman gain, z is the measurement, and H is the observation matrix. This fusion enhances navigation accuracy, as demonstrated in mobile robot localization systems merging IMU, LiDAR, and odometry data.^[136] In practical deployments, such as Clearpath Robotics' OutdoorNav stack, integrated sensing and planning enable autonomous traversal at speeds up to 2 m/s (7.2 km/h) in forested areas by fusing GPS, IMU, and LiDAR for real-time obstacle avoidance.^[134]

Applications and Future Directions

Real-World Deployments

Robot locomotion systems have been deployed extensively in extraterrestrial and underwater exploration to navigate challenging terrains inaccessible to humans. NASA's Perseverance rover, which landed on Mars in February 2021, exemplifies wheeled locomotion adapted for rocky, uneven Martian surfaces, enabling autonomous traversal of Jezero Crater to collect rock samples and search for signs of ancient life.^[137] The rover's rocker-bogie suspension system allows it to climb obstacles up to 25 degrees while maintaining stability, covering over 38 kilometers since deployment as of November 2025 through terrain-relative navigation that processes onboard imagery for path planning.^[138] In deep-sea environments, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) such as those developed by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, including the Orpheus AUV, employ propeller-based propulsion to map seafloor topography at depths exceeding 6,000 meters, producing high-resolution bathymetric data for oceanographic research.^[139] These vehicles have revolutionized seafloor imaging by providing multibeam sonar surveys that reveal geological features with resolutions finer than those from surface ships, supporting global efforts to map over 80% of the ocean floor.^[140] In search and rescue operations, aerial and legged robots enhance rapid assessment and survivor location in disaster zones. During the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, unmanned aerial vehicles like the Honeywell T-Hawk micro air vehicle were deployed to conduct radiological surveys and visual inspections of the damaged reactors, hovering at low altitudes to capture imagery without exposing personnel to radiation.^[141] This ducted-fan drone, weighing 18 pounds, provided real-time video feeds that informed response strategies amid the earthquake and tsunami aftermath.^[142] Complementing aerial systems, quadruped legged robots such as Boston Dynamics' Spot have been utilized in rubble-strewn environments during earthquakes and structural collapses, navigating uneven debris with dynamic stability to deliver thermal imaging and gas sensors for victim detection.^[143] For instance, Spot's articulated legs enable it to climb stairs and traverse 30-degree inclines in collapsed buildings, supporting operations like those tested in simulated disaster scenarios by fire departments.^[144] Industrial applications leverage wheeled and tracked locomotion for efficient material handling in controlled settings. Amazon's Kiva systems, acquired in 2012 but operational since the mid-2000s, consist of fleets of autonomous guided vehicles (AGVs) that transport shelving units across warehouse floors, reducing picking times by up to 75% in fulfillment centers.^[145] These low-profile robots use omnidirectional wheels to navigate via floor markers, coordinating thousands in a single facility to move inventory weighing up to 1,000 pounds.^[146] In agriculture, autonomous harvesters like the Agrobot E-Series employ wheeled bases with vision-guided arms to navigate crop rows, selectively picking strawberries at rates comparable to human labor while minimizing damage.^[147] These robots integrate GPS and LiDAR for precise path following in uneven fields, enabling high-volume harvesting in commercial orchards.^[148] Military reconnaissance benefits from unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) designed for stealthy traversal of hostile terrains. The U.S. Army's Squad Multipurpose Equipment Transport (SMET), a tracked UGV, has been fielded for route clearance and perimeter surveillance, carrying payloads up to 1,000 pounds while following convoys at speeds of 6 mph.^[149] Similarly, the Israeli Guardium UGV conducts border patrols using electric locomotion for quiet operation, integrating electro-optical sensors to detect intruders over 10-kilometer routes.^[149] In environmental monitoring, EU-funded initiatives like the TESTUDO project, launched under Horizon Europe, deploy swarms of heterogeneous autonomous vehicles—including ground and aerial robots—for resilient infrastructure surveillance in harsh conditions, enabling coverage of large areas through collaborative mapping.^[150] The project aims to demonstrate coordinated operations integrating sensor fusion for real-time data on ecological and structural health.

Emerging Technologies and Challenges

In recent years, AI-driven adaptive gaits have emerged as a pivotal innovation in robot locomotion, enabling machines to dynamically adjust their movement patterns in response to varying terrains and conditions. For instance, researchers have developed an AI system inspired by animal locomotion that allows four-legged robots to learn and adapt gaits to unfamiliar environments, such as slippery or uneven surfaces, by processing sensory data in real-time through reinforcement learning algorithms.^[151] This approach improves traversal speed and stability, reducing falls in challenging scenarios compared to static gait methods.^[151] Soft robotics represents another frontier, particularly for operations in extreme environments like deep-sea or space settings, where rigid structures fail due to harsh conditions. Advances in AI-embodied multi-modal flexible electronic robots integrate sensing, actuation, and computing to enable adaptive locomotion, such as crawling or swimming, in diverse and unpredictable settings.^[152] These systems use soft materials like silicone combined with embedded AI for self-healing and shape-morphing capabilities, allowing robots to navigate tight spaces or withstand high pressures without mechanical failure.^[152] In space exploration contexts, soft robots are being designed to conform to irregular lunar or Martian terrains, addressing locomotion challenges posed by low gravity and abrasive regolith.^[153] Scalability remains a challenge for soft robotics, with increasing size amplifying control complexity and material fatigue in locomotion. Quantum sensors are gaining traction for precision navigation in robot locomotion, offering unprecedented accuracy in positioning and orientation by leveraging quantum interference effects. These sensors, such as atomic clocks and magnetometers, enable sub-millimeter resolution in GPS-denied environments, crucial for autonomous robots in underground or urban canyons.^[154] A 2025 proposal outlines a quantum AI-powered robotic system for multidimensional navigation, potentially enhancing path planning by detecting minute environmental changes.^[155] Swarm locomotion has advanced through collective behaviors and flocking algorithms, allowing groups of simple robots to accomplish large-scale tasks like search-and-rescue or environmental monitoring. In swarm systems, decentralized control enables emergent coordination, where individual robots adjust speeds and directions based on local interactions, mimicking bird flocks or ant colonies.^[156] For example, differential adaptive steering mechanisms in legged swarms stabilize group locomotion under perturbations, achieving up to 40% faster convergence to target formations than centralized methods.^[156] Flocking algorithms, often based on potential fields or bio-inspired rules, facilitate scalable navigation, with recent implementations showing robust performance in dynamic obstacle avoidance for hundreds of units.^[156] Despite these innovations, significant challenges persist in robot locomotion. Battery life remains a critical bottleneck, with most mobile robots achieving less than 1 hour of continuous autonomy under demanding tasks, limiting practical deployments in remote areas.^[157] Efforts target solid-state batteries and energy-harvesting techniques to extend operation, but current prototypes still fall short in weight-to-power ratios for legged or soft systems.^[158] Ethical concerns surrounding AI in autonomous movement are escalating, particularly regarding accountability for unintended actions during navigation, such as collisions in shared human spaces. As robots gain decision-making autonomy, broader issues like bias in AI algorithms necessitate frameworks for transparent AI ethics.^[159] Regulatory gaps in 2025 highlight the need for standards ensuring safe, equitable locomotion behaviors.^[159] Looking ahead, neuromorphic computing promises real-time decision-making for locomotion by emulating brain-like spiking neural networks, drastically cutting latency and power use in adaptive control. These chips process sensory inputs asynchronously, enabling robots to react to terrain changes in milliseconds.^[160] Integration with augmented reality (AR) for teleoperation is a burgeoning trend, allowing human operators to guide robot locomotion remotely with immersive feedback. AR interfaces overlay virtual paths on real-time video feeds, enhancing precision in complex maneuvers, with glove-based systems capturing gestures to control soft robot deformations.^[161] This hybrid approach supports reduced operator fatigue and errors in locomotion tasks. A notable 2025 development involves neural network-optimized locomotion frameworks, such as bio-inspired data-driven methods for soft robots, which have achieved approximately 10% energy reduction through gait parameter tuning via machine learning.^[162] These optimizations adapt inchworm-like movements to terrains, minimizing power draw while maintaining speed.^[162] In 2025, humanoid robots like Figure's Figure 01 have seen increased deployment in warehouse logistics, demonstrating advanced bipedal locomotion for human-like manipulation tasks.^[163]

Notable Examples and Contributors

Iconic Robot Systems

The Mars Sojourner rover, deployed in 1997 as part of NASA's Mars Pathfinder mission, marked a pioneering advancement in wheeled robot locomotion by becoming the first planetary rover to utilize a six-wheeled rocker-bogie suspension system, allowing it to navigate rocky Martian terrain over distances up to 500 meters during its 83-day operational lifespan.^[164] This design distributed weight evenly across the wheels, enabling the 10.6-kilogram rover to climb obstacles up to 20 centimeters high and traverse slopes of 30 degrees, demonstrating robust mobility in low-gravity, dusty environments.^[165] In the realm of legged locomotion, Boston Dynamics' Spot, commercially released in 2019, exemplifies agile quadrupedal robots tailored for industrial inspection tasks, featuring a lightweight 25-kilogram frame with articulated legs that support dynamic gaits like trotting and climbing at speeds up to 1.6 meters per second.^[166] Equipped with 12 degrees of freedom across its limbs, Spot employs proprioceptive sensing and torque-controlled actuators to maintain balance on uneven surfaces, such as construction sites or oil rigs, while carrying payloads up to 14 kilograms.^[167] Its ability to autonomously avoid obstacles via integrated stereo cameras and LiDAR underscores advancements in real-time terrain adaptation for legged systems. The Parrot AR.Drone, introduced in 2010, represented an early milestone in consumer-accessible flying locomotion as a quadcopter drone controlled via smartphone, weighing 380 grams and achieving flight times of up to 15 minutes with stabilized hovering through four brushless motors and inertial measurement units.^[168] This remote-controlled aerial vehicle featured front-facing and downward cameras for augmented reality applications, enabling basic navigation and obstacle detection in indoor and outdoor settings, which popularized multirotor designs for hobbyist and educational use.^[169] For aquatic environments, NOAA's collaboration with Saildrone in the 2010s introduced wind-propelled unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) like the Saildrone Explorer, a 7-meter-long vessel that harnesses a rigid wingsail for propulsion, achieving speeds of 5 knots while collecting oceanographic data over missions exceeding 12 months without refueling.^[170] Powered by wind and supplemented by solar panels for onboard sensors, these USVs navigate via satellite guidance and autopilot systems, demonstrating efficient, emission-free locomotion across vast oceanic expanses for environmental monitoring.^[171] Hybrid locomotion found embodiment in ETH Zurich's ANYmal, first developed in 2016 and later enhanced with wheeled variants around 2019, allowing seamless transitions between trotting gaits and wheeled driving modes to optimize energy efficiency on mixed terrains like urban debris or flat surfaces.^[172] The 30-kilogram quadruped integrates torque-controlled legs with non-steerable wheels, enabling it to traverse rough obstacles at 1 meter per second in leg mode or reach 4 meters per second in wheel mode, as validated through online trajectory optimization for dynamic hybrid maneuvers.^[173] iRobot's PackBot, introduced in the early 2000s, served as a tracked mobile robot for hazardous environments, notably deployed during the 2003 Iraq War for bomb disposal operations, where over 200 units inspected improvised explosive devices and conducted reconnaissance in urban combat zones.^[174] Weighing 9 to 20 kilograms depending on configuration, PackBot's differential drive system allowed it to navigate tight spaces and climb stairs with risers up to 21.6 centimeters (8.5 inches) high, relying on fiber-optic tethers for real-time video feedback to operators.^[175]

Key Researchers and Milestones

Marc Raibert, a pioneering figure in dynamic legged robotics, founded the Leg Laboratory at Carnegie Mellon University in 1980, which later moved to MIT, where he developed the foundational principles for robots capable of hopping and balancing through natural dynamics rather than static stability.^[176] His work in the 1980s produced the first electrically actuated, self-balancing one-legged hopper, demonstrating controlled hopping at speeds up to 2.5 m/s and heights of 0.4 m, which shifted the paradigm from rigid, wheeled locomotion to agile, energy-efficient legged systems inspired by animal movement.^[177] Raibert's innovations, including the 1984 planar one-legged hopper, established the scientific basis for highly dynamic robots and influenced subsequent advancements in bipedal and quadrupedal designs. Later, as founder of Boston Dynamics in 1992, he extended these concepts to practical applications, enabling robots to traverse rough terrain with robustness.^[178] Rodney Brooks, an MIT professor, introduced the subsumption architecture in 1986 as a reactive control framework for mobile robots, emphasizing layered behaviors that allow simple instincts to override higher-level planning for real-time adaptability.^[179] This approach, implemented in early robots like Genghis (a six-legged walker from 1989), enabled emergent locomotion behaviors without centralized computation, marking a departure from traditional symbolic AI toward distributed, behavior-based systems that improved navigation in unstructured environments.^[180] Brooks' architecture facilitated robust mobile robot locomotion by prioritizing sensorimotor loops, influencing field robotics and autonomous systems for decades.^[181] Jessica Hodgins, a researcher at Carnegie Mellon University, advanced gait optimization for humanoid robots through optimization techniques that adapt human motion capture data to robotic constraints, ensuring stable and natural walking patterns.^[182] In her 2000 work, Hodgins demonstrated methods to retarget human locomotion trajectories onto humanoid platforms like the Sarcos robot, using constrained optimization to respect joint limits and avoid collisions while preserving dynamic balance.^[183] Her contributions, including gait synthesis for bipedal robots that mimic human efficiency, have informed control strategies for agile humanoids, bridging biomechanics and robotics to enable more fluid and energy-optimal movement.^[184] A pivotal milestone in planetary robot locomotion occurred on July 4, 1997, when NASA's Sojourner rover, part of the Mars Pathfinder mission, became the first wheeled robotic explorer to operate autonomously on another planet's surface.^[185] Sojourner traversed up to 500 meters over 83 Martian sols (about 85 Earth days), using stereo cameras and laser rangefinders for obstacle avoidance and soil analysis, proving low-cost rover technology for extraterrestrial mobility.^[186] This success validated reactive navigation algorithms for uneven terrain, paving the way for subsequent Mars rovers and expanding robotic exploration beyond Earth.^[187] The 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge represented a breakthrough in autonomous ground vehicle locomotion, with Stanford University's Stanley robot completing a 132-mile desert course in 6 hours and 53 minutes without human intervention.^[188] Equipped with LIDAR, GPS, and velocity-based obstacle detection, Stanley achieved an average speed of 19.1 mph by fusing sensor data for real-time path planning, outperforming 22 competitors and demonstrating scalable autonomy for off-road environments.^[189] This victory accelerated advancements in self-driving technology, shifting focus from teleoperated to fully autonomous wheeled locomotion systems.^[190] These contributions collectively transformed robot locomotion from deliberate, stability-focused mechanisms to dynamic, adaptive systems capable of operating in complex, real-world settings, fostering innovations in both research and deployment.^[191]

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iRobot Unveils Details of Robot Deployments in Iraq and Afghanistan
Jun 2, 2004 · Over 50 PackBots are deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan. The robots have assisted in dozens of reconnaissance missions to date, with only one PackBot lost in ...
[169]
iRobot's PackBot on the front lines - Phys.org
Feb 24, 2006 · The PackBot, which can constrict into a 24" space, has been sent into operations in Iraq and Afghanistan with over 300 units in action and a ...
[170]
Marc Raibert
Raibert's laboratory at MIT, the Leg Lab, is well known for its work on systems that move dynamically, including legged robots, simulated mechanisms, and ...
[171]
(PDF) A Historical Perspective of Legged Robots - ResearchGate
The objective of this paper is to present the evolution and the state-of-the-art in the area of legged locomotion systems.
[172]
Marc Raibert - Wikipedia
At CMU he founded the Leg Laboratory (1980), a lab that helped establish the scientific basis for highly dynamic robots. Raibert developed the first self- ...
[173]
Innovation Beat: I know what Marc Raibert did this summer
Jul 30, 2025 · The setup included some of Raibert's early robot prototypes as well as Atlas, the humanoid robot Boston Dynamics made famous doing Parkour in ...
[174]
[PDF] A Robust Layered Control System for a Mobile Robot
We call this architecture a subsumption architecture. In such a scheme we have a working control system for the robot very early in the piece as soon as we ...
[175]
Robot Mind or Robot Body: Whatever happened to the Subsumption ...
Jun 7, 2016 · The Subsumption Architecture used to be the future. In 1985, a rebellious young researcher named Rodney Brooks published the innocently titled ...
[176]
Pioneers of Behavior-Based Robotics - The Mind Project
... Brooks' "subsumption architecture" offered an intriguing alternative. Brooks' robots were producing increasingly complex behavior in all manner of ...
[177]
Optimizing Human Motion for the Control of a Humanoid Robot
Using pre-recorded human motion and trajectory tracking, we can control the motion of a humanoid robot for free-space, upper body gestures.Missing: gait | Show results with:gait
[178]
Optimizing Human Motion for the Control of a Humanoid Robot
In this paper, we explore a set of techniques for limiting human motion of upper body gestures to that achievable by a Sarcos humanoid robot located at ATR. In ...
[179]
[PDF] Adapting Human Motion for the Control of a Humanoid Robot
Using pre-recorded human motion and trajectory tracking, we can control the motion of a humanoid robot for free-space, upper body gestures.
[180]
July 4, 1997: Sojourner Arrives on the Red Planet - NASA
Jul 1, 2020 · The Sojourner rover arrived at the Red Planet on July 4, 1997. The mission was designed to demonstrate a low-cost method for delivering a set of science ...Missing: milestone | Show results with:milestone
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Sojourner — The first successful Mars rover - Space
Nov 27, 2024 · Launched on Dec. 4, 1996, and landing on July 4, 1997, the mission successfully delivered the first rover, Sojourner, to the Martian surface ...Missing: milestone | Show results with:milestone
[182]
Sojourner: NASA's first Mars rover | Astronomy.com
Jul 4, 2023 · But after it safely touched down on the Red Planet's surface on July 4, 1997, Sojourner exceeded all expectations, lasting more than 10 times as ...
[183]
Robot car "Stanley" designed by Stanford Racing Team
The challenge consisted of building a robot capable of navigating 175 miles through desert terrain in less than 10 hours, with no human intervention. On October ...
[184]
[PDF] Stanley: The robot that won the DARPA Grand Challenge
Oct 8, 2005 · This article describes the robot Stanley, which won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge. Stanley was developed for high-speed desert driving ...
[185]
DARPA Grand Challenge: 20 Years Later - IEEE Spectrum
Feb 1, 2025 · The Stanford Racing Team's Stanley won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge. The race helped jump-start interest in self-driving cars.
[186]
(PDF) Stanley: The robot that won the DARPA Grand Challenge.
PDF | On Jan 1, 2006, Sebastian Thrun and others published Stanley: The robot that won the DARPA Grand Challenge. | Find, read and cite all the research you ...