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Telepresence

Telepresence is a technology that creates the illusion of physical presence in a remote or virtual location through telecommunication systems, enabling users to interact with distant environments via sensory feedback, robotics, or immersive media as if they were actually there.^[1]^[2] The concept traces its roots to mid-20th-century teleoperation systems, which emerged in the 1960s with basic camera-and-screen setups for broadcasting static images and controlling remote devices in hazardous areas like nuclear facilities.^[3] The term "telepresence" was formally introduced by computer scientist and AI pioneer Marvin Minsky in a 1980 essay published in Omni magazine, where he proposed advanced robotic systems with high-fidelity sensory inputs—such as visual, auditory, and tactile feedback—to allow precise remote manipulation, envisioning applications in fields like space exploration, microsurgery, and undersea operations.^[4] Over the decades, it evolved from these early mechanical controls to sophisticated integrations of digital networks, with significant milestones including the development of haptic interfaces in the 1990s for enhanced immersion and the rise of commercial video-based systems in the 2000s.^[5] By the 2020s, telepresence had incorporated virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and artificial intelligence (AI) to address latency challenges and improve user experience, driven by over 700 peer-reviewed studies between 2020 and 2023 on network optimization and quality metrics.^[3] At its core, telepresence relies on key technologies such as high-definition video and audio streams with ultra-low latency (targeting under 150 milliseconds), haptic devices like data gloves for simulating touch, and mobile robots or avatars for physical embodiment in remote spaces.^[1] Emerging systems leverage 5G and nascent 6G networks for holographic projections and real-time data transmission, requiring bandwidths up to 4.32 terabits per second and sub-millisecond delays to sustain realistic interactions.^[1] Protocols like XMPP facilitate seamless real-time communication, while AI algorithms enhance motion tracking and environmental adaptation, making telepresence scalable from desktop setups to full-body surrogates.^[1]^[3] Telepresence finds broad applications across sectors, transforming how humans engage with inaccessible or distant realms. In healthcare, it powers telesurgery and remote patient monitoring, allowing surgeons to operate robotic arms with precise feedback over global networks.^[1] In business and education, it supports immersive virtual meetings and classrooms, with tools like telepresence robots enabling real-time collaboration and skill training without physical travel.^[6]^[3] For exploration, organizations like NOAA use it in oceanographic missions to beam live data and video to shore-based scientists, facilitating discoveries in deep-sea environments.^[7] In hazardous industries, such as mining or nuclear maintenance, it minimizes human risk by deploying surrogates into dangerous zones, a vision Minsky highlighted as central to its potential.^[4] As of 2025, ongoing research emphasizes integration with fog computing and the metaverse for even more seamless, AI-augmented experiences.^[3]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Principles

Telepresence is defined as the use of technology to create the sensation of being physically present at a remote location, allowing an individual to interact with that environment as if they were there in person, often through telerobotics, video conferencing, or immersive systems.^[8] This concept, originally articulated by Marvin Minsky, emphasizes remote manipulation and sensory replication to enable actions in hazardous or inaccessible areas, such as nuclear facilities or space exploration.^[8] In broader terms, telepresence extends to virtual environments where users experience a mediated reality that feels unmediated and immediate.^[9] At its core, telepresence relies on several key elements to bridge the perceptual gap between the operator and the remote site. These include multisensory feedback encompassing visual, auditory, and haptic inputs to convey environmental details like textures, pressures, and sounds; low-latency communication to ensure real-time responsiveness and minimize delays that could disrupt natural interaction; and precise operator control mechanisms that allow intuitive manipulation of remote devices or avatars.^[8]^[9] For instance, high-resolution sensors and actuators replicate tactile sensations, while network protocols reduce transmission lags to below perceptible thresholds, fostering seamless control.^[1] These components collectively aim to eliminate cues of mediation, such as visible wires or artificial interfaces, thereby enhancing the user's ability to perform tasks remotely with the dexterity and awareness of direct presence.^[8] Psychologically, telepresence centers on the sense of "presence," which refers to the subjective feeling that a mediated experience is not mediated but rather natural, direct, and real.^[10] This phenomenon is quantified through factors like immersion (the extent of sensory envelopment), interactivity (the speed, range, and mapping of user actions to environmental responses), and realism (the perceptual fidelity of the simulated space).^[9] Studies measure presence via self-reported scales assessing spatial awareness and emotional engagement, revealing that higher levels correlate with reduced cognitive dissonance between the local and remote contexts.^[10] Telepresence systems can be taxonomized into immersive and non-immersive categories based on sensory engagement. Immersive telepresence incorporates full-spectrum sensory inputs, such as head-mounted displays for 360-degree visuals, spatial audio, and haptic suits for touch, creating a deep sense of embodiment and environmental integration.^[11] In contrast, non-immersive variants rely primarily on video-only or screen-based interfaces, providing limited visual and auditory feedback without physical or kinesthetic involvement, which results in lower presence levels but simpler implementation.^[12] This distinction highlights how immersive approaches prioritize perceptual completeness to simulate physical copresence, while non-immersive ones suffice for basic observational or conversational needs.^[13] Telepresence differs from video conferencing primarily in its emphasis on embodied presence, allowing users to interact physically with remote environments through robotic avatars or proxies, rather than relying solely on flat, two-dimensional video streams that limit mobility and tactile engagement.^[14] For instance, while video conferencing tools like Zoom facilitate verbal and visual communication, telepresence systems enable users to navigate spaces, gesture, and manipulate objects in real-time, fostering a more immersive sense of co-location.^[15] This distinction is evident in studies showing telepresence robots outperforming traditional video setups in promoting social inclusion and dynamic interactions during remote participation.^[16] In contrast to remote control or telerobotics, which prioritize direct human oversight of mechanical operations with minimal sensory immersion, telepresence focuses on replicating human-like perceptual experiences to create an illusion of physical presence.^[14] Remote control systems, often used in industrial robotics, emphasize precise task execution over social or environmental awareness, lacking the bidirectional feedback loops that telepresence employs for natural interaction.^[17] Telerobotics, while overlapping in remote manipulation, typically omits the comprehensive multisensory and social elements central to telepresence, such as haptic responses and contextual awareness.^[14] Telepresence narrows the scope of broader teletechnologies by centering on real-time, bidirectional presence that simulates "being there," as opposed to one-way monitoring or asynchronous data transmission common in general remote sensing applications.^[14] Unlike teletechnologies focused on surveillance or data collection, telepresence integrates high-fidelity audio, visual, and sometimes haptic channels to support reciprocal human-to-human or human-to-environment exchanges.^[15] Emerging telepresence hybrids incorporate artificial intelligence to augment human operators with features like adaptive navigation and gesture recognition, enhancing naturalness without replacing human agency, in distinction from autonomous AI agents that operate independently.^[18] For example, AI in telepresence systems assists in environmental mapping for smoother mobility, maintaining the operator's embodied control, whereas pure AI agents execute tasks via algorithmic decision-making devoid of direct human sensory input.^[14] This collaborative approach, as seen in embodied AI telepresence prototypes, prioritizes human-AI synergy for immersive remote interactions over standalone automation.^[19]

Historical Development

Origins and Early Innovations

The concept of telepresence has roots in early inventions aimed at remote communication and sensory extension. Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the telephone in 1876 marked a foundational precursor by enabling real-time voice transmission over distances, effectively extending human auditory presence without physical travel.^[20] Building on this, AT&T's Bell Laboratories developed the first practical videophone prototype in 1927, known as the ikonophone, which transmitted both audio and low-resolution video between Washington, D.C., and New York City during a demonstration featuring Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover.^[21] This mechanical television-based system represented an initial step toward visual and auditory telepresence, though limited by bandwidth and image quality.^[22] In the 1950s and 1960s, advancements in remote manipulation introduced force feedback mechanisms, laying groundwork for more immersive telepresence. Engineer Ralph Mosher at General Electric developed the Handyman system between 1958 and 1959 as part of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission's Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Program, creating a master-slave manipulator that allowed operators to handle hazardous materials remotely with tactile feedback simulating the slave arm's forces.^[23] This evolved into the Hardiman exoskeleton prototype in the mid-1960s, a powered full-body suit designed to amplify human strength up to 25 times while providing bilateral force reflection for precise remote control in dangerous environments like nuclear facilities.^[24] These innovations emphasized sensory extension through haptic and visual cues, enabling operators to "feel" remote interactions as if present. NASA's applications in the 1960s and 1970s further advanced telepresence through space-oriented robotic manipulators, prioritizing sensory feedback for extraterrestrial operations. The Surveyor program's robotic shovel arm, deployed on lunar landers from 1966 to 1968, allowed ground controllers to remotely scoop and analyze soil samples using television cameras for visual extension, marking one of the earliest uses of teleoperation in planetary exploration.^[25] In the 1970s, the Viking Mars landers' sampling arms extended this capability, incorporating stereoscopic imaging and basic force sensing to enable precise remote manipulation of surface materials despite communication delays of up to 20 minutes.^[25] These systems highlighted telepresence's role in extending human senses to inaccessible environments, with force-reflecting controls reducing task errors in simulations.^[25] The term "telepresence" was formally coined by Marvin Minsky in a 1980 article in Omni magazine, stemming from a 1979 funding proposal where it described using machines to extend human senses and actions to remote locations as if physically present. Minsky envisioned systems integrating visual, auditory, and tactile feedback for immersive remote control, influencing subsequent research in robotics and virtual environments.

Modern Evolution and Milestones

The evolution of telepresence in the 1980s and 1990s marked a shift from theoretical concepts to practical implementations, driven by advancements in video compression and early telerobotics. Video teleconferencing gained traction during this period, with systems like AT&T's VideoPhone 2500, introduced in 1992, enabling color video transmission over analog telephone lines and representing a commercial push toward accessible remote presence.^[26] Concurrently, the first telerobotic prototypes emerged at MIT, where Marvin Minsky's 1980 essay on telepresence laid foundational ideas for sensory feedback in remote manipulation, influencing early experimental systems that integrated human-like control with robotic actuators.^[27] In the 2000s, commercial high-fidelity video systems propelled telepresence into enterprise settings, exemplified by Cisco's TelePresence suites launched in October 2006, which featured immersive room-based setups with multiple high-definition screens to simulate in-person meetings.^[28] Parallel developments in space applications included NASA's Robonaut program, initiated in 1997 but advancing significantly in the 2010s with Robonaut 2 (R2) delivered to the International Space Station in 2011, enabling teleoperated tasks like tool handling to assist astronauts remotely.^[29] The 2010s and 2020s saw telepresence expand into mobile and networked robotics, with platforms like Double Robotics' Double telepresence robot debuting in 2013 as an iPad-controlled, self-balancing wheeled device for office navigation and remote interaction.^[30] Post-2019, integration with 5G networks enhanced low-latency capabilities, reducing delays to as low as 1 millisecond for real-time applications such as remote surgery and immersive collaboration, as demonstrated in early 5G trials for volumetric video standards.^[31] By 2025, telepresence continued to innovate through AI enhancements and specialized applications, highlighted at the Second IEEE Conference on Telepresence held in Leiden, Netherlands, from September 8-10, which featured demonstrations of AI-driven telerobotics and human-machine interfaces.^[32] Concurrently, 3D telepresence grew in cultural heritage preservation, with UNESCO launching the Dive into Heritage platform in August 2025 to provide immersive 3D explorations of World Heritage sites, supported by a 29.01% average annual growth rate in related immersive technologies since the early 2020s.^[33]^[34]

Technical Components

Sensory and Perceptual Systems

Sensory and perceptual systems in telepresence are designed to capture and transmit environmental stimuli to remote users, enabling a sense of presence through realistic replication of visual, auditory, and tactile inputs. These systems rely on advanced hardware and software to process multi-modal data, prioritizing immersion while managing computational demands. High-fidelity perception is crucial for applications where spatial awareness and natural interaction are essential, such as remote collaboration or exploration. Vision systems form the cornerstone of telepresence, utilizing high-resolution cameras to deliver detailed imagery that approximates in-person viewing. Cameras supporting 4K or 8K resolutions capture fine details in dynamic environments, as demonstrated in immersive conferencing setups where life-size autostereoscopic displays render remote participants with photorealistic clarity. For comprehensive scene coverage, 360-degree panoramic cameras provide omnidirectional views, allowing users to explore remote spaces interactively without fixed perspectives. Depth sensing technologies, such as LiDAR, enhance spatial awareness by generating 3D maps of the environment, enabling accurate reconstruction of object positions and distances in telepresence robots like those equipped with integrated LiDAR and RGB-D sensors. These components collectively support volumetric video capture, where multi-view setups fuse high-resolution inputs to create holographic-like representations. Audio components emphasize spatial fidelity to facilitate natural conversations and environmental immersion in telepresence. Directional microphones arrayed in configurations like beamforming setups isolate sound sources, capturing voices and ambient noises with precision to mimic real-world acoustics. Spatial sound reproduction, particularly through binaural audio techniques, simulates how sounds reach human ears, using head-related transfer functions (HRTFs) to render three-dimensional audio scenes that preserve directional cues. Noise cancellation algorithms, often integrated via deep learning models, suppress background interference in multi-channel inputs, ensuring clear binaural output for telepresence applications. These elements enable personalized audio experiences, where listener-specific acoustic modeling adapts signals to individual head shapes for enhanced realism. Beyond vision and audio, telepresence systems incorporate rudimentary haptic and olfactory feedback to engage additional senses, though these remain experimental. Basic haptic prototypes employ vibration motors in wearable devices, such as gloves or arm interfaces, to convey tactile cues like contact or texture through modulated vibrations that induce muscle exertion sensations. For instance, fingertip wearables combine vibration with sliding mechanisms to simulate touch interactions in virtual environments. Olfactory technology, still rare and prototype-based, uses experimental emitters to release scent compounds synchronized with visual or auditory cues, aiming to enrich multisensory media experiences in telepresence. These emitters, often integrated into display units, draw from multimedia research on olfaction to evoke environmental smells, though scalability and safety challenges limit widespread adoption. Integrating these sensory inputs poses significant challenges, particularly in synchronizing multi-modal streams to avoid perceptual mismatches that induce cognitive dissonance. Misalignments between visual, auditory, and haptic signals can disrupt immersion, as users experience unnatural delays or inconsistencies that conflict with expected sensory correlations. Advanced frameworks address this by employing shared control models that align feedback modalities, such as combining virtual admittance with intention recognition to harmonize inputs in real-time. In immersive teleoperation, robust multi-modal fusion techniques ensure that visual depth from LiDAR, binaural audio, and haptic vibrations cohere, reducing dissonance and enhancing the overall sense of embodiment.

Robotic and Interface Mechanisms

Mobility platforms form the foundational element of robotic telepresence systems, enabling remote operators to navigate diverse environments with varying degrees of freedom. Wheeled bases, often omnidirectional through mecanum or holonomic wheel configurations, provide efficient movement in flat, indoor settings such as offices or hospitals, allowing smooth translation and rotation without repositioning. For more complex terrains, legged platforms, including bipedal or quadrupedal designs, offer superior adaptability to uneven surfaces, stairs, or outdoor spaces, mimicking human-like locomotion to extend telepresence into unstructured areas.^[35] These platforms integrate with sensory inputs to support real-time environmental adaptation, ensuring stable remote navigation. Manipulation tools in telepresence robotics extend operator capabilities beyond observation to active interaction with objects. End-effectors such as parallel-jaw grippers or multi-fingered hands enable precise grasping and handling, often mounted on multi-degree-of-freedom arms for reach and dexterity in tasks like object relocation or assembly. Force feedback mechanisms, which transmit tactile sensations from the remote site to the operator's controls, enhance manipulation accuracy by conveying contact forces and vibrations, reducing errors in delicate operations.^[36] Seminal implementations, like those in the ANA Avatar XPRIZE systems, demonstrate how bilateral force reflection improves task performance in collaborative scenarios.^[37] User interfaces bridge the gap between human intent and robotic action, prioritizing intuitiveness to minimize cognitive load during teleoperation. Joysticks and game controllers offer direct, analog control for mobility and basic manipulation. Gesture-based systems, captured via wearable sensors or cameras, allow natural arm and hand movements to map to robot motions, while VR headsets provide immersive views with head-tracking for aligning the operator's perspective with the robot's orientation.^[38] Integrated VR interfaces, combining handheld controllers with gesture recognition, further enhance embodiment by simulating physical presence through synchronized audio-visual and kinesthetic cues.^[39] Safety features are integral to robotic telepresence, mitigating risks in shared human-robot spaces. Collision avoidance systems employ proximity sensors, such as LiDAR or ultrasonic arrays, to detect obstacles and autonomously adjust paths, preventing impacts during navigation.^[40] Emergency stop protocols, triggered by operator input or automated thresholds like excessive force detection, immediately halt all motion to avert accidents, adhering to standards like ISO 10218 for collaborative robotics.^[41] People-aware navigation algorithms further refine safety by predicting pedestrian trajectories, ensuring polite and non-intrusive movement in populated areas.^[42]

Networking and Data Transmission

Telepresence systems rely on robust networking infrastructures to enable seamless, real-time transmission of high-fidelity sensory data, such as video, audio, and haptic feedback, between remote participants. Bandwidth requirements vary based on the system's complexity and resolution; for high-definition (HD) video streams at 1080p resolution, typical needs range from 3-5 Mbps per screen, often scaling to 10-50 Mbps for multi-screen setups to maintain quality without significant compression artifacts.^[43]^[44] In multi-sensory applications incorporating additional data streams like tactile or environmental sensors, bandwidth demands increase substantially, often exceeding 100 Mbps, where advanced networks like 5G or emerging 6G provide the necessary capacity for low-latency, high-throughput transfer of diverse data types.^[45]^[46] Key protocols underpin the efficient handling of these data flows in telepresence environments. WebRTC facilitates peer-to-peer video and audio streaming, enabling direct connections without centralized servers for reduced overhead and improved interactivity in real-time sessions.^[47] Complementing this, the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) manages signaling for call setup, modification, and teardown, ensuring reliable establishment of multimedia sessions across heterogeneous networks.^[48] For data compression, standards like H.265 (High Efficiency Video Coding) are widely adopted, offering up to 50% better compression efficiency than its predecessor H.264 while preserving visual quality, which is critical for bandwidth-constrained telepresence deployments.^[48]^[49] Latency management is paramount in telepresence to mimic natural interaction, with end-to-end delays ideally kept below 100 ms to avoid perceptible lag in video conferencing or remote control scenarios.^[50] Edge computing plays a vital role by processing data closer to the source, minimizing propagation times in distributed systems and supporting applications like telesurgery where even milliseconds matter.^[51] Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms further prioritize telepresence traffic, using techniques such as traffic shaping and queue management to ensure consistent performance over shared networks, often integrating with protocols like DiffServ for packet classification.^[52] Security protocols are essential to protect sensitive data streams from interception or tampering in telepresence networks. Transport Layer Security (TLS) and its datagram counterpart, Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS), provide encryption for both reliable TCP-based and unreliable UDP-based transmissions, respectively, ensuring confidentiality and integrity of video, audio, and control signals.^[53]^[54] Authentication mechanisms, including certificate-based verification and mutual TLS handshakes, prevent unauthorized access and man-in-the-middle attacks, with DTLS specifically adapted for real-time media to handle packet loss without compromising security.^[53]^[55]

Implementation Approaches

Achieving High Fidelity

Achieving high fidelity in telepresence requires strategies that integrate sensory, perceptual, and interface components to foster perceptual equivalence between local and remote environments. Central to this are transparency principles, which aim to minimize perceptual "gaps" by ensuring that mediated experiences closely mimic direct human interaction. For instance, systems achieve this through multi-sensory integration—encompassing visual, auditory, haptic, olfactory, and vestibular cues—to align remote perceptions with natural human sensory capabilities.^[56] Natural viewpoint matching further enhances transparency by employing wide-angle displays or head-mounted devices that replicate the human field of view (approximately 180° horizontal and 120° vertical) and resolution thresholds (around 60 seconds of arc), often using stereoscopic imaging with motorized sensor platforms synchronized to user head movements.^[56] Calibration techniques play a crucial role in dynamically adjusting system elements to user positions, thereby maintaining seamless fidelity. In smart camera networks, auto-calibration frameworks enable non-intrusive alignment by detecting participant locations and automatically adjusting camera angles to optimize multi-view imaging without manual intervention.^[57] These methods rely on spatial relationship analysis to eliminate calibration ambiguities, ensuring that visual feeds remain centered and proportionate to movements in telepresence setups. AI enhancements have advanced these integration strategies, particularly through machine learning for predictive and adaptive features that elevate realism. For environmental adaptation, AI-driven relighting techniques use neural networks to adjust foreground illumination in real-time based on 3D high-dynamic-range environment maps, seamlessly blending remote participants into local lighting conditions without hardware changes.^[58] In 2025 developments, deep super-resolution models deployed on edge servers enhance point cloud streaming for immersive telepresence, upscaling low-resolution inputs to high-fidelity outputs while adapting to network variability, thus supporting fluid gesture rendering and framing.^[59] Machine learning also facilitates gesture prediction by reconstructing 3D avatars from 2D video feeds, enabling anticipatory animations that maintain natural interaction flow despite latency.^[58] Modular designs further enable on-demand switching between immersive 360-degree video for broad awareness and targeted high-resolution imaging for detailed interactions, optimizing bandwidth and perceptual depth in a unified framework.^[60] Such architectures ensure scalable transparency by leveraging core components like networked cameras and actuators, without delving into protocol specifics.^[61]

Evaluation Metrics

Evaluating the performance of telepresence systems involves a combination of subjective and objective metrics to assess both technical fidelity and user experience. Subjective evaluations often rely on presence questionnaires, which gauge users' sense of immersion and naturalness in remote environments. The Presence Questionnaire (PQ), developed by Witmer and Singer, measures dimensions such as involvement, sensory fidelity, and adaptation through Likert-scale items, providing a standardized tool widely used in telepresence studies to quantify perceived presence.^[62] Similarly, the Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ) assesses spatial presence, involvement, and realism via self-reported scores, and has been integrated into ITU-T Recommendation P.812 for subjective testing of interactive virtual reality applications, which extend to immersive telepresence scenarios.^[63] These tools, part of the broader ITU-T P.800 series methodologies for subjective quality ratings like Mean Opinion Score (MOS), enable consistent cross-system comparisons by aggregating user feedback on telepresence naturalness.^[64] Objective metrics focus on quantifiable network and media parameters critical for seamless telepresence. Latency, the end-to-end delay in signal transmission, is a key indicator, with thresholds below 150 ms recommended to maintain conversational naturalness and avoid perceptible lag, as established in telepresence network design guidelines.^[65] Jitter, the variation in packet arrival times, and packet loss rates further impact audio-video synchronization; acceptable jitter is typically under 30 ms, while packet loss should remain below 1% to prevent artifacts in real-time streams.^[66] For video fidelity, Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR) serves as a standard metric, where values above 30 dB indicate high-quality reconstruction in 360-degree telepresence video streaming, correlating with perceptual sharpness.^[67] User studies complement these metrics by evaluating practical effectiveness through controlled experiments. Task performance tests measure outcomes like remote manipulation accuracy, where participants complete object-handling tasks via telepresence interfaces, often showing error rates reduced by stereoscopic views compared to monoscopic ones.^[68] Physiological measures, such as heart rate variability (HRV), provide objective insights into user stress and engagement; decreased HRV during telepresence interactions with robots indicates heightened emotional involvement, as observed in studies with older users.^[69] Standardization efforts ensure reproducible benchmarking across telepresence systems. The IEEE Telepresence Initiative's 2024 white paper outlines guidelines for immersive telepresence evaluation, emphasizing integrated metrics for space exploration and terrestrial applications, with updates anticipated from the 2025 IEEE Conference on Telepresence focusing on benchmark protocols for latency and presence.^[14]^[70] These frameworks promote high-impact assessments, prioritizing seminal methods like those in ITU-T recommendations for global interoperability.

Benefits and Limitations

Primary Advantages

Telepresence systems provide significant accessibility gains by enabling remote participation for individuals with disabilities or mobility limitations, allowing them to engage in social, educational, and professional activities without physical presence. For instance, telepresence robots equipped with eye-gaze or brain-computer interfaces permit users with severe motor impairments to navigate remote environments, such as classrooms or museums, fostering inclusion and improving quality of life.^[71]^[72] In aged care settings, these systems support immobile elderly individuals by facilitating virtual interactions with family or caregivers, reducing isolation while minimizing the physical demands of mobility. Such advancements democratize access to spaces and experiences previously out of reach, with studies showing enhanced user satisfaction and social connectivity among participants.^[73] Telepresence also offers environmental benefits by reducing the need for physical travel, thereby lowering carbon emissions and contributing to sustainability goals. For example, widespread adoption in business could decrease aviation-related CO2 emissions, with estimates suggesting potential savings equivalent to removing thousands of cars from roads annually as of 2025.^[74] Efficiency improvements represent another core benefit, as telepresence reduces travel costs and time, enabling seamless real-time collaboration across global teams. By replacing in-person meetings with high-fidelity virtual interactions, organizations can cut travel expenses by up to 20% while maintaining face-to-face communication quality, which accelerates decision-making and project timelines.^[75]^[76] This is particularly valuable for distributed workforces, where telepresence supports immersive video conferencing and robotic proxies that streamline remote onboarding, interviews, and team coordination without logistical disruptions.^[77] Overall, these efficiencies enhance productivity by minimizing downtime associated with travel, allowing professionals to allocate resources more effectively toward core tasks.^[78] Safety enhancements are a pivotal advantage, permitting risk-free operations in hazardous environments and thereby preserving human life. Telepresence robots can perform inspections, maintenance, or interventions in areas like nuclear facilities or disaster zones, where direct human exposure could lead to injury or fatality, by relaying real-time sensory data to remote operators.^[79]^[80] For example, in high-risk industrial settings, these systems navigate dangerous terrains autonomously or under teleoperation, reducing accident rates and enabling expert oversight without endangering personnel.^[81] This capability extends to public safety applications, such as remote threat assessment in correctional facilities, further mitigating risks to first responders.^[82] Telepresence exhibits strong scalability, ranging from individual robotic units to large-scale enterprise video suites, with 2025 AI advancements simplifying deployment and management. AI-driven features, such as automated navigation and predictive networking, allow systems to adapt to varying user scales, from single-user mobility aids to multi-site corporate networks, without proportional increases in complexity.^[14] Integration with fog computing further enhances this by distributing processing loads, supporting expansive telepresence services in real-time across diverse infrastructures.^[3] These developments ensure that telepresence can expand efficiently to meet growing demands in collaborative and exploratory contexts.^[83]

Key Challenges

One of the primary technical hurdles in telepresence deployment is achieving low latency, particularly in areas without 5G infrastructure, where delays exceeding 50-100 milliseconds end-to-end can disrupt natural interaction and immersion.^[84] High bandwidth demands further complicate this, as immersive formats like 3D point clouds or light fields generate massive data volumes—up to 2.2 Gbps for multi-sensor setups—straining transmission networks and requiring advanced compression to maintain real-time performance.^[84] Real-time rendering of these 3D elements poses additional challenges, including high computational loads that lead to artifacts such as ghosting or distortions during user movement, especially with large baselines in light field displays.^[85] Cost barriers significantly limit accessibility, with initial setup for advanced telepresence robots often exceeding $10,000, as seen in models like the SIFBOT-1.1 currently priced at $11,950 (discounted from $20,000), which includes high-definition screens and navigation capabilities.^[86] Ongoing maintenance adds to these expenses, typically ranging from 5-12% of the robot's purchase price annually—for a $100,000 system, this equates to $5,000-12,000 per year—to cover repairs, software updates, and technical support.^[87] Vendor lock-in exacerbates adoption issues, as proprietary hardware and software ecosystems restrict interoperability and increase long-term dependency on specific providers.^[88] Privacy and security risks are prominent, with video streams vulnerable to data breaches through hacking, potentially exposing personal information like medical details or financial documents captured inadvertently.^[89] Ethical concerns arise from surveillance-like capabilities, where continuous recording raises issues of consent and misuse, such as unauthorized access to private spaces or data repurposing for marketing without user awareness.^[89] Human factors present adoption barriers, including the "uncanny valley" effect, where near-humanlike avatars or robots evoke discomfort, particularly among older adults who rate such representations more negatively due to perceptual mismatches.^[90] Workflow disruptions in team settings and aged care further hinder integration; for instance, a 2025 study on telepresence robots in long-term care found that while they enable remote monitoring, infrastructural gaps like poor broadband and staff resistance create barriers to seamless use, occasionally interrupting care routines.^[91] In collaborative teams, hybrid telepresence setups can reduce cohesion and engagement, leading to miscommunications during dynamic interactions.^[92]

Applications

Collaborative and Professional Uses

Telepresence technologies have transformed remote meetings by enabling high-fidelity, immersive video collaboration that approximates in-person interactions. High-end suites like the Cisco Room Bar Pro, a 2025-era device for medium-sized conference rooms, incorporate dual 48MP cameras with AI-driven multi-subject framing and stereoscopic 3D imaging to create life-like depth perception, allowing participants to engage as if co-located. Its 16-microphone array delivers spatial audio with noise removal, while support for triple displays and real-time translation enhances content sharing and inclusivity across global teams. These features make it ideal for professional settings requiring dynamic discussions, such as strategy sessions or client negotiations.^[93] In hybrid office environments, telepresence robots promote virtual attendance by integrating remote workers into physical workspaces. Devices from Double Robotics, such as the Double 3, feature a mobile base with 3D sensors for obstacle avoidance and an iPad interface for video interaction, enabling users to "roam" offices, join impromptu hallway chats, or attend boardroom meetings without fixed scheduling. Corporate examples include animation studio Light Chaser Animation employing the robot to allow a Los Angeles-based director to oversee Beijing teams in real time, fostering seamless collaboration. A 2023 pilot at Microsoft Research Cambridge tested similar robots for knowledge work, revealing opportunities for enjoyable remote-on-site encounters, though adoption challenges like navigation issues led to its discontinuation after three months.^[94]^[95] The post-2020 pandemic has accelerated telepresence adoption for community building through avatar-driven platforms, particularly for virtual town halls and social events. Gather.Town, a metaverse-like tool, lets users navigate virtual spaces via customizable avatars with proximity-based spatial audio, simulating casual networking or large gatherings. It supports company-wide town halls where leadership delivers updates in a shared digital environment, alongside breakout areas for Q&A or informal mingling. Team socials, such as virtual game nights or happy hours, leverage these features to rebuild connections in distributed groups. A 2024 study of a Gather.Town-hosted academic seminar found high user satisfaction (mean score 4.76/5) and significant boosts in social presence (β = 0.615), driving interactive exchanges among remote participants.^[96]^[97] Telepresence contributes to productivity gains in distributed teams by equating remote collaboration to in-person efficacy. A 2016 empirical study of 392 business meetings in a multinational firm showed telepresence outperforming audio and standard video conferencing across objectives like decision-making and relationship-building, with no significant difference from face-to-face modes.^[98] Post-pandemic surveys reinforce this, with 51% of 12,000 employees reporting maintained or improved productivity on collaborative tasks using advanced video tools, attributing gains to better tool satisfaction and reduced coordination friction. These impacts underscore telepresence's role in enhancing efficiency for hybrid professional workflows.^[99]

Healthcare and Medical Scenarios

Telepresence technologies have significantly expanded remote consultations in healthcare, enabling physicians to interact with patients at the bedside without physical presence. Systems like the RP-VITA telepresence robot, developed by InTouch Health in collaboration with iRobot, allow clinicians to maneuver the device to a patient's bedside for real-time video consultations, data access, and diagnostic support, particularly in isolation wards or during pandemics.^[100] This approach facilitates personalized care by integrating two-way audio-visual communication and autonomous navigation, addressing shortages in specialist availability. The medical telepresence robots market, valued at USD 95.1 million in 2025, is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 18.8% through 2030, driven by demand for such remote consultation tools in chronic disease management and geriatric settings.^[101] In telesurgery, telepresence systems provide surgeons with precise control over robotic instruments from remote locations, enhancing operational accuracy through advanced haptic feedback. The da Vinci 5 surgical system by Intuitive Surgical incorporates Force Feedback technology, which transmits tactile sensations of push/pull forces and tissue tension directly to the surgeon's hand controllers via sensors at the instrument tips. This feature has been shown to reduce applied tissue forces by up to 43% in preclinical evaluations, allowing for gentler handling during procedures like dissection and suturing. By enabling high-fidelity remote operations, these systems overcome geographic barriers, supporting minimally invasive surgeries in underserved areas while maintaining procedural safety.^[102] AI-enhanced telepresence robots play a crucial role in monitoring elderly patients, promoting independent living and reducing the frequency of hospital visits through continuous oversight. These robots facilitate remote vital sign monitoring, medication reminders, and virtual check-ins, with AI algorithms enabling personalized interactions such as emotional responsiveness and adaptive companionship to combat loneliness. A 2025 study involving 54 semi-structured interviews with elderly individuals, caregivers, and medical professionals in Estonia, alongside a review of 81 articles, demonstrated that such systems improve cognitive function, adherence to therapeutic practices, and early detection of health issues, thereby decreasing institutional care needs. Integration with smart home devices further supports proactive interventions, enhancing overall patient autonomy.^[103] Post-pandemic, telepresence has advanced mental health care via immersive avatars and extended reality (XR) platforms, fostering greater patient engagement in remote therapy sessions. In virtual reality-based telemental health, patients can create personalized avatars for cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which builds trust and reduces feelings of judgment by simulating private, immersive environments. Examples include VR group interventions for anxiety and PTSD, where virtual therapists represented as avatars enhance therapeutic alliance and accessibility for isolated individuals. These tools, accelerated by COVID-19 restrictions, have shown feasibility in improving outcomes for conditions like depression, with studies indicating higher patient openness and sustained benefits in engagement.^[104]

Exploration and High-Risk Environments

Telepresence systems have significantly enhanced industrial inspection tasks in hazardous environments, such as pipelines and manufacturing facilities, by enabling remote operation of robots to assess structural integrity without exposing human workers to risks like toxic gases or confined spaces. For instance, the Explorer series of pipeline inspection robots, developed by RedZone Robotics, utilizes real-time teleoperation through high-speed wireless links, providing operators with live video feeds and sensor data via a graphical user interface for visual and nondestructive evaluation in live gas mains. These systems combine teleoperation for precise control with semiautonomous features, such as scripted obstacle navigation using precomputed paths, allowing inspections over distances exceeding 3,000 feet in pressurized environments up to 750 psig. In oil and gas facilities, similar robotic platforms perform inspection and manipulation operations traditionally done by field operators, reducing human involvement in explosive or remote rig settings. Recent advancements incorporate IoT integration for enhanced data transmission, as seen in 2025 deployments where connected sensors on oil rig robots enable real-time monitoring and predictive maintenance, minimizing downtime and safety incidents. In disaster response scenarios, telepresence-equipped drones and robots play a critical role in search-and-rescue operations by navigating rubble, floods, or fire zones to locate survivors while minimizing human exposure to collapsing structures or toxic fumes. A 2025 telepresence-empowered robotic system, designed for land disasters, integrates advanced sensors for real-time environmental mapping and obstacle detection, allowing remote experts to guide the robot via video feeds and deploy chemical markers for visibility in low-light conditions. This approach enhances coordination and speed, with prototype testing demonstrating improved efficacy in simulations of earthquake or landslide scenarios by enabling operators to assess situations from safe distances. Such systems, often combining aerial drones for initial surveys with ground-based robots for detailed intervention, have been projected to become standard first-responder tools by late 2025, further integrating AI for path optimization in dynamic clutter. Telepresence extends to extreme environments like space and underwater realms, where human access is limited or impossible, facilitating exploration through remotely controlled manipulators and humanoid robots. NASA's Robonaut 2 (R2), deployed to the International Space Station since 2011, serves as a telepresence platform for assisting astronauts in maintenance and scientific tasks, operated via laptop interfaces that transmit operator motions through a sensor suit despite communication delays. Successors and upgrades, such as mobility enhancements with climbing legs, build on this to support extravehicular activities and habitat construction in future lunar or Martian missions. In underwater applications, subsea manipulators on remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) enable deep-sea exploration up to 11,000 meters, using teleoperation with force feedback for precise tasks like sampling or valve manipulation. For example, systems like the Hydro-Lek manipulators employ master-slave position control with joysticks and cameras for bilateral force reflection, improving operator immersion in low-visibility conditions. Emerging VR-haptic interfaces, tested in 2025 with devices like the Oculus Quest 2 and haptic gloves on ROVs such as BlueROV2, enhance situational awareness by providing vibration feedback for gripper status, reducing collisions in manipulation tasks like object transfer. Emerging applications of telepresence in construction sites focus on remote oversight to address labor shortages and safety concerns in high-risk areas like high-rise builds or unstable terrains, with projections indicating widespread adoption by 2025. Telepresence technologies, including wearable cameras and drone-based systems, allow supervisors to monitor progress in real-time, track subcontractor productivity, and resolve disputes using time-stamped visuals, integrated with AI for automated reports and PPE compliance checks. Market analyses forecast growth in these digital transformation (DX) tools, driven by government initiatives like Japan's i-Construction for efficient remote management. By 2025, jobsite intelligence solutions are expected to provide 24/7 connectivity via connected cameras and reality capture software, enabling seamless collaboration without on-site presence and reducing accident rates through proactive hazard detection.^[105]

Educational and Cultural Domains

Telepresence technologies have been integrated into educational settings to facilitate remote student participation in physical classrooms, particularly through mobile robots that allow absent learners to navigate spaces, interact with peers, and engage in real-time discussions. These telepresence robots (TPRs), such as the Double 3, enable hybrid learning models by providing dynamic video feeds and mobility, helping remote students feel more present and reducing isolation compared to static video calls.^[106]^[107] A pedagogical design model, PEPCII, outlines strategies for effective TPR adoption, emphasizing inclusive access and instructional methods to address cognitive and physical limitations, as demonstrated in studies at Tallinn University of Technology where TPRs boosted social presence and engagement for remote participants.^[107] In vocational training, telepresence supports skill acquisition for manufacturing apprenticeships via haptic teleoperation, where trainees remotely manipulate tools with force feedback to simulate real-world tasks without physical risks. Immersive teleoperation systems allow learners to generalize manipulation skills, such as assembly or welding, through virtual fixtures and robot learning interfaces that guide novices with haptic cues based on position errors.^[108] For instance, remote manufacturing setups immerse apprentices in environments using visual and haptic tools, enabling safe practice of dexterous operations like those in welding or machinery handling.^[109] Within cultural domains, AI-powered telepresence robots enhance museum accessibility for virtual tours of cultural heritage sites, allowing remote users with mobility limitations to navigate exhibits autonomously and interact in real time. A 2025 study highlights deployments like the Ohmni robot at the University of Florence Museum System, which integrates BrainControl software for immersive, personalized tours, and the Ruby robot at the Museum of Communication in Bern, supporting tandem visits and obstacle avoidance to serve diverse audiences, including the 1.3 billion people globally with disabilities.^[110] These systems, as seen at the California State Railroad Museum, enable pediatric patients and others to join guided explorations, fostering inclusive engagement with artifacts through adjustable audio-visual interfaces.^[110] Telepresence also manifests in artistic expressions through interactive installations that connect global performers in real-time collaborations, blurring physical boundaries. Pioneering works by Eduardo Kac, such as Ornitorrinco (1989), linked participants across continents via telerobotics and telecommunications, allowing remote control of robotic elements in live events between Rio de Janeiro and Chicago.^[111] Subsequent installations like Ornitorrinco on the Moon (1993) extended this to international festivals, integrating delayed audio-visual feeds for synchronized global performances that explored human-machine interfaces in art.^[111] Modern examples include telepresence stages for theater, where performers from separate locations appear in shared virtual sets, enabling pandemic-era global productions with affordable remote connectivity.^[112]

Virtual and Augmented Reality Integrations

Virtual reality (VR) integrations in telepresence leverage head-mounted displays (HMDs) to provide users with immersive, 360-degree remote views, simulating physical presence in distant environments. These systems stream high-resolution 360° video from remote cameras to the HMD, allowing head-tracked navigation that aligns the user's gaze with the captured scene for a first-person perspective.^[67] For instance, integrations with devices like the Oculus Quest enable real-time streaming over high-bandwidth networks, reducing latency to approximately 56 milliseconds while compressing video to maintain visual fidelity.^[67] This approach enhances remote exploration and interaction, as demonstrated in applications where users control robotic viewpoints through VR interfaces.^[113] Augmented reality (AR) extends telepresence by overlaying digital annotations and graphical elements onto live video feeds, facilitating collaborative tasks in real time. In remote assistance scenarios, AR systems project pointers, labels, or instructional overlays directly onto the shared environment, enabling experts to guide on-site users without physical proximity.^[114] A comprehensive review of over 200 studies highlights that such annotations improve task comprehension and efficiency in fields like maintenance and training, with devices like Microsoft HoloLens supporting intuitive, head-tracked interactions.^[114] In telemedicine, AR facilitates telementoring by allowing real-time visual cues during procedures, such as ultrasound guidance or surgical interventions, where 60% of analyzed platforms incorporate annotation features to enhance precision and communication.^[115] Hybrid systems combine VR avatars with physical robots to create mixed reality telepresence, blending virtual representations and tangible mobility for more natural interactions. These setups allow remote users to embody avatars that overlay robotic platforms, enabling seamless transitions between virtual self-expression and physical navigation in shared spaces.^[116] For example, the VROOM system integrates VR headsets for remote users with AR overlays on telepresence robots like the BeamPro, tracking head and hand movements to project life-size avatars that foster social presence during online meetings.^[117] This fusion addresses limitations of purely robotic or virtual embodiments, supporting applications in customer service where users switch between avatar-driven interactions and robot mobility.^[116] By 2025, advancements in 3D telepresence, driven by VR and AR integrations, are projected to grow the market to USD 2.77 billion, fueled by demand for immersive collaboration tools like real-time 3D rendering and mixed-reality platforms.^[118] Fog computing plays a pivotal role in these developments by processing data at the network edge, achieving ultralow latency essential for VR telepresence—targeting 0.1 milliseconds in emerging 6G environments to support seamless holographic communications.^[3] This edge-based approach optimizes bandwidth and reduces delays in VR streaming, enabling more reliable hybrid systems for global applications.^[3]

Haptics and Advanced Telerobotics

Haptic devices play a crucial role in enhancing telepresence by simulating tactile sensations, allowing users to experience force, touch, and texture remotely. These devices, such as gloves and full-body suits, employ mechanisms like vibration motors, pneumatic actuators, and exoskeletal resistance to replicate physical interactions. For instance, HaptX gloves utilize microfluidic technology to create deformable tactile pins that provide high-fidelity feedback mimicking the feel of objects, enabling precise manipulation in virtual or remote environments. Similarly, the TESLASUIT's TESLAGLOVE integrates an exoskeleton that generates resistance during grasping motions, preventing virtual collisions and simulating object rigidity through gentle finger pulls.^[119]^[120] These haptic interfaces bridge the sensory gap in telepresence, improving immersion and task performance in applications like remote surgery or virtual training. Advanced telerobotics extends telepresence capabilities through semi-autonomous systems that incorporate AI to assist human operators in executing complex tasks. In these setups, robots operate under shared control paradigms where AI handles routine or high-precision subtasks, such as path planning or obstacle avoidance, while the operator oversees strategic decisions. The SANDRo project exemplifies this by deploying a TIAGo robot for assistive services, using AI to enable semi-autonomous navigation and manipulation in dynamic environments, reducing operator cognitive load during teleoperation.^[121] Research on semi-autonomous teleoperated robots further demonstrates how AI integration facilitates dynamic field navigation, with algorithms processing sensor data to predict and execute movements, achieving up to 30% faster task completion in simulated hazardous scenarios compared to fully manual control.^[122] This AI assistance is particularly vital for intricate operations, like robotic assembly or disaster response, where real-time adaptability is essential. Bilateral control systems form the backbone of advanced telerobotics, employing master-slave architectures to synchronize operator inputs with remote robot actions while relaying force feedback through closed-loop mechanisms. In these setups, the master device (e.g., a haptic glove or joystick) mirrors the slave robot's environmental interactions, allowing operators to feel resistance or compliance in real-time. A seminal framework for such systems outlines position-error tracking and force reflection modes, ensuring stability even with communication delays by damping oscillations in the feedback loop.^[123] High-fidelity implementations, like those using adaptive synchronization control, achieve transparency by scaling forces proportionally—typically with gains between 0.5 and 1.0—to minimize discrepancies between perceived and actual remote forces, as validated in nonlinear manipulator tests.^[124]^[125] This bidirectional exchange enhances precision in telepresence, enabling intuitive control for tasks requiring fine motor skills. Looking toward 2025, wearable haptics are poised for integration into full-body telepresence systems, particularly for training scenarios that demand multisensory immersion. Innovations like the TESLASUIT 4.0 provide comprehensive full-body feedback through embedded electrotactile and vibrotactile arrays, capturing motion and delivering sensations for realistic skill acquisition in remote simulations.^[126] Recent advancements, including USC's wearable haptic system, enable emotionally nuanced touch in shared virtual spaces, with bidirectional interfaces supporting haptic feedback for gestures like pats and handshakes to enhance collaborative training.^[127] A 2025 review of multi-sensory wearables highlights their potential in telepresence training through integrated force, vibration, and thermal feedback, as demonstrated in glovebox operation simulations.^[128]^[129] These developments promise to transform vocational and professional training by simulating physical presence without on-site risks.

Commercial Landscape

Leading Vendors and Products

In the hardware sector, Double Robotics leads with its Double 3 telepresence robot, a self-driving, two-wheeled device equipped with 3D sensors for obstacle avoidance and autonomous navigation, enabling seamless remote presence in offices and classrooms.^[30] Cisco dominates enterprise video suites through its Webex Room series, including the compact Room Bar Pro for small meeting spaces, which integrates high-definition cameras and microphones for immersive group interactions.^[130] Inbot Technology specializes in medical-grade robots like the PadBot series, featuring AI-powered autonomous navigation and real-time video for remote consultations in healthcare settings.^[131] Software-focused providers emphasize scalable conferencing platforms; HP Poly (formerly Polycom) offers the Poly Studio X72 video bar, an all-in-one solution with AI-enhanced noise suppression and automatic framing for hybrid meetings across medium to large rooms.^[132] Vidyo, now part of Enghouse Systems, delivers cloud-based scalable video technology using H.264 SVC encoding to support secure, multi-point telepresence without dedicated hardware infrastructure.^[133] Emerging startups innovate in niche areas: OhmniLabs provides the Ohmni telepresence robot, a life-sized mobile unit with high-definition video, full autonomy, and cloud management for immersive remote interactions, particularly in healthcare and education.^[134] SilexPro develops collaboration tools like the PTE video-agnostic system, a modular hardware solution for platform-independent group telepresence in smart rooms.^[135] Agility Robotics advances mobility through its Digit humanoid platform, incorporating remote oversight via the Agility Arc cloud system for teleoperated tasks in dynamic environments.^[136] Notable products include the Beam telepresence robot from Suitable Technologies (now distributed by Awabot), a wheeled system with dual HDR cameras, 4G connectivity, and 8-hour battery life for enterprise roaming and real-time engagement.^[137] By 2025, AI integrations such as auto-transcription have become standard, exemplified by Cisco's Notetaker agent, which provides real-time summarization and transcription during local and remote sessions to enhance productivity.^[138]

Market Trends and Projections

The global 3D telepresence market is projected to reach USD 2.77 billion in 2025 (as of May 2025 report), while the overall telepresence equipment market, valued at USD 2.6 billion in 2024, is expected to grow to USD 3.5 billion by 2033, driven by advancements in immersive and 3D technologies.^[118]^[139] Within this, the telepresence robotics segment, valued at approximately USD 368 million in 2024, is expected to expand to USD 1.3 billion by 2032, reflecting robust demand for mobile remote presence solutions in professional and healthcare settings.^[140] These figures underscore the sector's maturation post-2020, with key segments like medical telepresence robots growing from USD 80.3 million in 2024 at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 18.8%.^[101] Growth is propelled by several factors, including the sustained shift to hybrid work models following the COVID-19 pandemic, which has increased reliance on remote collaboration tools.^[141] The widespread adoption of 5G networks enhances real-time video and data transmission, enabling low-latency interactions essential for telepresence applications.^[142] Additionally, integration of artificial intelligence for features like gesture recognition and environmental adaptation is accelerating innovation, contributing to an overall industry CAGR of 15-20% in high-growth areas such as 3D telepresence.^[118]^[143] Regionally, North America maintains market leadership, accounting for about 36% of global revenue in 2023, fueled by strong enterprise adoption and healthcare deployments.^[144] In contrast, the Asia-Pacific region is experiencing the fastest expansion, with a projected CAGR of up to 18.82% for 3D telepresence through 2030, driven by manufacturing sector investments and rapid 5G rollout.^[145] This growth highlights Asia-Pacific's emergence as a manufacturing hub for telepresence hardware. Looking ahead, the telepresence market is poised for diversification into retail for customer service and inventory assistance via mobile robots, as well as law enforcement for remote risk assessment in scenarios like bomb threats.^[146]^[147] By 2030, 3D telepresence technologies are forecasted to dominate, with the segment reaching USD 5.66 billion to USD 8 billion globally, supported by enhanced realism and integration with augmented reality.^[118]^[148]

Cultural and Societal Impact

Representations in Media

Telepresence has long captivated science fiction literature, serving as a lens to examine human disconnection from physical bodies and the ethics of remote interaction. In Robert A. Heinlein's novella Waldo (1942), the titular character, afflicted by a rare disease, controls intricate mechanical manipulators—known as "waldoes"—from an orbiting satellite, enabling precise remote operation of machinery on Earth and pioneering the concept of master-slave teleoperation systems.^[149] This depiction emphasizes the liberating yet isolating potential of such technology, where the operator's will is extended through bilateral feedback mechanisms. Similarly, William Gibson's seminal cyberpunk novel Neuromancer (1984) portrays remote embodiment via "jacking in" to cyberspace, where protagonists like Case inhabit digital constructs, blurring the boundaries between physical absence and virtual presence in a networked matrix.^[150] Film and television have vividly illustrated telepresence through dystopian narratives that highlight its societal ramifications. The 2009 film Surrogates, directed by Jonathan Mostow, envisions a world where individuals remain secluded at home while controlling lifelike robotic proxies for all social and professional activities, achieving seamless remote embodiment but at the cost of authentic human connection.^[151] In the anthology series Black Mirror, the episode "Be Right Back" (2013) delves into robotic presence as a grieving woman reconstructs her deceased partner through an AI-driven android, which mimics his mannerisms via data from his online life, evoking a haunting form of posthumous telepresence that raises questions about emotional authenticity.^[152] Video games frequently incorporate telepresence mechanics to enhance immersion and player agency, often through avatar control or remote manipulation. Titles like VRChat (2017 onward) exemplify this by allowing users to embody customizable avatars in persistent virtual worlds, fostering social telepresence where players interact as if physically co-located despite geographical separation.^[153] In more narrative-driven examples, games such as Watch Dogs (2014) feature mechanics where protagonists remotely hack and control urban infrastructure or drones, simulating telepresent oversight in a surveillance-heavy environment.^[154] In comics and animation, telepresence appears in scenarios involving simulated or augmented realities for training and conflict. The X-Men comic series, particularly from the 1980s onward under writers like Chris Claremont, features the Danger Room—a high-tech chamber in the Xavier Institute that generates holographic and robotic simulations for mutant training, enabling telepresent combat scenarios where participants experience virtual threats as if real.^[155] This setup underscores the technology's role in skill-building without physical risk, evolving into a sentient entity named Danger in later arcs. In 2020s webcomics, themes of AI-generated content have gained traction amid rising generative AI tools; for instance, series like The Bestiary Chronicles (2022) is an AI-assisted science fiction comic exploring monsters born from technological hubris, reflecting anxieties about automation in creative processes.^[156] Telepresence technologies, which enable remote presence through robots, avatars, or video systems, raise significant privacy concerns due to their reliance on constant video and audio recording. These systems often capture personal data in real-time, including biometric information such as facial geometry or voice patterns, which can reveal sensitive details without users' full awareness. For instance, focus group studies have identified risks of informational privacy breaches, where recordings inadvertently expose personal habits, medical details, or private conversations, potentially leading to misuse or hacking. In residential care settings, telepresence robots have been noted to evoke feelings of surveillance among users and bystanders, as remote operators can access private spaces like bedrooms, exacerbating concerns over unauthorized intrusion. Legal frameworks like the EU's GDPR classify such biometric data as special category personal data, requiring explicit consent for processing, yet many platforms fail to adequately inform users or obtain proper authorization. Recent analyses in 2025 highlight gaps in protections for avatars in virtual environments, where inferred data—such as ethnicity or health indicators derived from avatar movements—falls outside clear regulatory scopes, prompting calls for extensions to cover telepresence-specific applications.^[89]^[157]^[158] Equity issues in telepresence adoption are amplified by the digital divide, particularly in low-connectivity regions where high-bandwidth requirements limit access. Rural and underserved areas often lack the reliable broadband essential for seamless telepresence, perpetuating disparities in education, healthcare, and social participation; for example, while urban users benefit from immersive remote experiences, those in developing regions face exclusion due to infrastructure gaps affecting approximately 2.6 billion people globally (as of 2023).^[159] This exacerbates socioeconomic inequalities, as telepresence tools demand not only connectivity but also devices and digital literacy, widening gaps between privileged and marginalized groups. Studies emphasize that without targeted interventions, such technologies risk reinforcing existing inequities rather than bridging them.^[160] Social impacts of telepresence include the potential for diminished physical interactions and job displacement in fields amenable to remote operation. By facilitating virtual presence, these systems may reduce face-to-face engagements, fragmenting communal spaces and weakening spontaneous social bonds in workplaces or communities, as physical co-location opportunities decline. In professional contexts, telepresence enables remote oversight and automation, contributing to job losses; for instance, studies have found that each industrial robot displaces approximately 1.6 manufacturing jobs on average (as of analyses up to 2020), with teleoperated systems accelerating this in remote-capable sectors like customer service or inspection roles.^[161] These shifts can lead to broader societal effects, including increased isolation and economic insecurity for affected workers.^[162] Ethical frameworks for telepresence grapple with consent in teleoperated environments and the agency of AI components. Debates center on ensuring informed consent for all parties, including bystanders, as remote operators may inadvertently capture non-consenting individuals, violating principles of autonomy and privacy; guidelines recommend resident control over robot access and explicit permissions for shared spaces to mitigate this. The rise of AI-driven telepresence introduces questions of agency, where hybrid human-AI systems blur responsibility lines, necessitating standards for disclosing human versus machine control to maintain trust and accountability. A 2025 IEEE standard addresses this by mandating identification of agency types in interactions, aiding ethical deployment.^[163] In cultural heritage applications, 2025 studies on AI telepresence robots in museums, such as at the University of Florence's collections, enable remote access for disabled users, enhancing inclusivity through tools like the Ohmni robot.^[110]^[157]

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Preference-Based People-Aware Navigation for Telepresence Robots
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[PDF] Telepresence - Cisco
Cisco TelePresence Codecs transmit 3-5 Mbps per 1080p screen, which represents over 99% compression. Therefore packet loss is proportionally magnified in ...
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Multi-sensory data transmission using 5G and B5G enabled network ...
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A systematic review on WebRTC for potential applications and ...
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Cisco Unified Communications Manager 14 Video Telephony Guide
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What is the HEVC (H.265) Video Codec, and What Are Its Benefits?
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End-to-end delay analysis of videoconferencing over packet ...
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Cisco Video and TelePresence Architecture Design Guide
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[PDF] Towards Transparent Telepresence - Strathprints
Ultimately a full Product Design Specification should be achievable for a Transparent Telepresence System based on technological transparency.
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Encumbrance-free telepresence system with real-time 3D capture ...
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Advancing Telepresence and Next-Generation Digital Human ...
Jul 29, 2024 · “With Maxine, we now have the ability to transform any 2D video feed into immersive high-fidelity 3D holographic experiences, without complex ...
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Enhancing Immersive Telepresence through Super-Resolution for ...
Sep 8, 2025 · Super-resolution (SR) techniques are integrated into adaptive streaming to enhance point cloud quality for telepresence, using deep SR models ...
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Embracing Socio-Technical Asymmetry through Tangible Peripheral ...
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A Modular Hybrid Telepresence System Integrating Immersive 360 ...
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[PDF] Emerging Telepresence Technologies for Hybrid Meetings
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In addition we developed an immersive tendencies questionnaire (ITQ) to measure differences in the tendencies of individuals to experience presence. These.
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Administration Guide for Cisco TelePresence Software Release IX 8 ...
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Rating 4.9 (161) Mar 6, 2023 · Learn how to measure network performance with key network metrics like throughput, latency, packet loss, jitter, packet reordering and more!
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[PDF] Virtual Reality Telepresence: 360-Degree Video Streaming with ...
We performed a technical evaluation of our system's visual quality post-compression with peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and FOVVideoVDP. We also conducted a ...
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(PDF) Skill Acquisition and Task Performance in Teleoperation ...
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Assessing affective response of older users to a telepresence robot ...
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Telepresence Robot System for People with Speech or Mobility ...
From this study, we conclude that the proposed telepresence system could be an asset to people with speech and mobility disabilities and could help them feel ...
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Navigating the Cyborg Classroom: Telepresence Robots ...
Jun 28, 2024 · Robotic telepresence promises to make classrooms accessible for students who are not able to attend in-person due to diverse reasons: illnesses ...
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May 13, 2025 · This paper aims to investigate the deployment of AI-powered telepresence robots within cultural institutions, focusing on their potential to expand access.
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[PDF] Telepresence Robots for People with Special Needs A Systematic ...
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Telepresence eases the travel expense burden by giving an organization the flexibility to dramatically cut its travel budget. The real time, face-to-face, high ...
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Face to (Virtual) Face - Computerworld
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This fosters inclusivity, reduces travel costs, and enhances team engagement. Additionally, enterprises are using telepresence robots to monitor production ...
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Mar 13, 2025 · Companies are adopting immersive solutions to enhance remote collaboration, reduce travel expenses, and integrate advanced technologies like AI, ...
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They can reduce people's workload assisting people with low-risk tasks or provide people with a physical presence in remote or dangerous places. However ...
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Dual-Arm HyQReal Puts Powerful Telepresence Anywhere
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Parameterization and Design of Telepresence Robot to Avoid ...
Feb 8, 2023 · The major objective of using robots in this area is to protect human beings from being harmed in high-risk and dangerous situations. To ...
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In this paper, we review the current limitations to the HTC system implementation and systemize the main challenges into a few major groups.
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Challenges in Experiencing Realistic Immersive Telepresence
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Oct 10, 2025 · If you've spent $100,000 on a robot, expect to spend $5,000 to $12,000 every year to keep it in top shape. That's the average maintenance range.
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A focus group study of privacy concerns about telepresence robots
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Jan 10, 2024 · The proxemics of hybrid MDT meetings can reduce shared presence, team cohesion, engagement, and task representation. This may result in greater ...
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Double is the most innovative tool for bringing your remote workers into the office. It enables a revolutionary new level of interaction with your remote team.Missing: settings | Show results with:settings
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Your mileage may vary: Case study of a robotic telepresence pilot roll-out for a hybrid knowledge work organisation | Extended Abstracts of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
### Summary of Robotic Telepresence Pilot at Microsoft Research
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The Ultimate Guide to Better Video Meetings - Gather | Virtual HQ for ...
Sep 8, 2022 · Virtual All hands or Town Hall. These company-wide events are usually hosted by leadership or upper management to keep the entire company up ...
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Identifying Factor Associations Emerging from an Academic Metaverse Event for Scholars in a Postpandemic World: Social Presence and Technology Self-Efficacy in Gather.Town - Fang-ying Lo, Chien-Yuan Su, Cheng-Huan Chen, 2024
### Summary of Social Presence and Avatars in Gather.Town for Virtual Meetings and Community Building Post-Pandemic
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What 12000 Employees Have to Say About the Future of Remote Work
Aug 11, 2020 · Learn how your company can hold onto the valuable productivity gains made during the pandemic.
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In stock Rating 4.0 (2) Mar 2, 2016 · The RP-Vita is an iRobot and InTouch Health telepresence robot. The Vita allows physicians to interact with patients and surgeons remotely.
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The global medical telepresence robots market size was estimated at USD 80.3 million in 2024 and is projected to grow at a CAGR of 18.8% from 2025 to 2030.<|separator|>
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Force Feedback technology in Intuitive’s da Vinci 5
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Swivl
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Enhancing synchronous hybrid learning with telepresence robots
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TELEPRESENCE ART - Eduardo Kac
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A Telepresence Stage: or how to create theatre in a pandemic
Dec 19, 2021 · The project aims to develop effective and affordable new approaches to connect performers from their separate homes and place them within virtual sets online.
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Full Immersive Telepresence Through Integration of a VR-Headset ...
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Augmented Reality in Real-time Telemedicine and Telementoring
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Cross-Reality Lifestyle: Integrating Physical and Virtual Lives ... - arXiv
Oct 27, 2025 · This enabled employees to seamlessly switch between physical telepresence robots and virtual avatars, allowing them to provide service from both ...
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[PDF] VROOM: Virtual Robot Overlay for Online Meetings - Microsoft
Abstract. Telepresence robots allow remote users to freely explore a space they are not in, and provide a physical embodiment in that space.
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May 12, 2025 · The 3D telepresence market is estimated at USD 2.77 billion in 2025, expected to reach USD 5.66 billion by 2030, with a CAGR of 15.37%.Missing: fog computing latency
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HaptX: Home
HaptX Gloves G1 turbocharges workforce training simulations, allowing team members to build vital muscle memory through precise, learn-by-doing experiences.
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Haptic Glove for Virtual Reality with Force Feedback | TESLAGLOVE
An exoskeleton creates resistance and gently pulls fingers during grasping movements, stopping the hand around a virtual object.
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Robot assistance, teleoperation and telepresence in project SANDRo
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High-Fidelity Bilateral Teleoperation Systems and the Effect of ...
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Cisco Collaboration Endpoints for Conferences and Meetings
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Empower your team with HP Poly's video conferencing solutions, providing seamless, high-quality communication for any setting.Poly Studio X72 Video Bar · Poly G7500 · Poly Studio X32 Video Bar
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Millions of people around the world connect visually every day through Vidyo's secure, scalable technology and cloud-based services. ... 2025 VIDYO INC ...About Us · Video Management · Vidyo University · Video Recording Solutions
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Beam is the most deployed telepresence robot worldwide, trusted by businesses, institutions, and professionals for seamless remote interaction.
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Telepresence Robot Market Size, Share, Trends & Forecast
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Law enforcement agencies are increasingly deploying telepresence robots to minimize direct human exposure in high-risk situations such as bomb threats ...
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Aug 7, 2009 · It's the ultimate form of telepresence, and futurist Dr. James Canton believes it could happen in the next decade or so.
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[PDF] 1 Enter the Avatar. The phenomenology of prosthetic telepresence ...
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Aug 24, 2019 · While this Danger Room has greatly helped the X-Men over the years, it also has many dark secrets. Here are the top ten secrets about the X-Men's Danger Room, ...5 5. Joined The X-Men · 4 4. Jean Grey School For... · 2 2. X-Men Database
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Feb 22, 2019 · Telepresence robots do increase presence and possibly engagement of family members in residential care, but privacy is a central concern.
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May 11, 2025 · This study highlights the gaps in current legal protections surrounding avatars and the biometric or inferred data they may reveal.
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Apr 29, 2024 · Studies have shown that adding one robot to a manufacturing process displaces an average of 6.6 positions.<|separator|>