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Analog

In science, engineering, and everyday language, analog (or analogue) refers to a system, device, or representation that uses continuous physical phenomena—such as voltage, sound waves, or mechanical motion—to model or transmit information in a proportional manner, as opposed to discrete or digital representations.^[1] The term derives from the Ancient Greek análogos (ἀνάλογος), meaning "proportionate" or "according to due ratio," from aná ("according to") + lógos ("ratio" or "word").^[1] Central to analog systems is their ability to capture infinite gradations within a range, mimicking natural phenomena like light or sound, though they are susceptible to noise and degradation over distance. In contrast, digital systems encode information as binary states (0s and 1s), enabling error correction, precise replication, and easier computation but requiring sampling and quantization of continuous inputs.^[2] This distinction underpins technologies from analog audio recordings to modern hybrid systems. Analog concepts extend beyond signals to computing, where analog computers solve differential equations through physical analogies (e.g., hydraulic models); physical modeling in sciences, such as analog gravity simulations in fluid dynamics; and cultural analogies in literature, art, and biology, where structures or processes resemble others in function if not form. As of 2025, analog methods persist in niche applications like high-fidelity audio and neuromorphic engineering, complementing digital dominance.^[3]

Core Concepts

Definition and Etymology

The term "analog" refers to a representation of data or information using continuous physical quantities, such as varying voltage levels or sound waves, which mimic the smooth, unbroken nature of the phenomenon being modeled, in contrast to discrete numerical values used in digital systems.^[4] This core definition emerged prominently in 20th-century technology and engineering contexts, where analog methods were applied to simulate real-world continuous processes like electrical signals or mechanical movements.^[5] Etymologically, "analog" derives from the Greek word analogos, meaning "proportionate" or "according to due proportion," composed of ana- ("according to" or "up to") and logos ("ratio," "proportion," or "word").^[1] The term entered Latin as analogus and French as analogue before appearing in English around the early 19th century, initially as a noun denoting "an analogous thing" in 1826.^[1] Its roots trace back to ancient Greek mathematics, where analogia described proportional relationships, such as in geometric ratios, influencing early English usage of related terms like "analogy" from the 15th century for correspondences or proportions.^[6] Historically, the word's application in English began in mathematical contexts for proportional analogies by the 16th century, evolving through philosophical and scientific discussions of similarity and ratio.^[7] By the 1940s, "analog" gained its modern technical connotation in electronics and computing to describe systems operating on continuous variables rather than discrete ones, marking a shift from abstract proportions to practical signal representation.^[5] A representative example is the analog clock, where hour and minute hands move continuously around a dial to indicate the passage of time as a smooth progression, unlike a digital clock's stepwise numerical display.^[8]

Analog versus Digital

Analog representations utilize continuous signals that vary smoothly over time, theoretically offering infinite resolution to capture the nuances of real-world phenomena, such as the gradual fluctuations in sound waves or light intensity.^[9] In contrast, digital representations employ discrete binary states, quantizing information into finite levels of 0s and 1s, which limits precision but enables exact replication through binary encoding.^[9] This fundamental distinction arises from the nature of the signals: analog maintains a proportional, unbroken correspondence to physical variables, while digital approximates them via sampled points, as explored in early information theory frameworks.^[10] Analog systems excel in naturally mirroring continuous real-world processes, such as the smooth reproduction of audio in vinyl records, providing a seamless fidelity that aligns closely with human sensory perception without the need for sampling.^[11] However, they are highly vulnerable to noise and degradation, where environmental interference accumulates cumulatively, distorting the signal over transmission or storage without inherent correction mechanisms.^[12] Digital systems, conversely, support robust error correction through redundancy and algorithms, facilitate lossless storage and scalable replication, and allow for efficient compression, making them ideal for long-distance communication and data archiving.^[12] Yet, they introduce limitations like quantization errors, which approximate continuous values and can cause information loss, and aliasing, where undersampling distorts high-frequency components.^[13] Philosophically, analog embodies continuity and structural isomorphism, where representations preserve the intensional relationships and fluid variability of the source, evoking a more "human-like" engagement with the world's inherent seamlessness.^[14] Digital, by relying on extensional, list-based coding of discrete symbols, prioritizes machine-like precision and abstraction, reducing complexity to finite, manipulable units but potentially alienating the organic flow of experience.^[14] This tension is foundational in information theory, as Claude Shannon differentiated continuous channels—modeling analog's probabilistic ensembles of functions—with their coordinate-dependent entropy, from discrete channels' absolute, bit-based measures, highlighting analog's complexity in capturing infinite variability versus digital's tractable finitude.^[10] The 20th-century transition from analog to digital marked a pivotal shift in media and computing, driven by innovations like pulse-code modulation in 1937,^[15] which enabled digital encoding of analog voice signals for telephony.^[16] By mid-century, computing pioneers such as Alan Turing laid theoretical groundwork for digital machines in 1936, accelerating the move toward discrete processing in electronics and data handling.^[17] In media, analog formats dominated through the 1980s—via vinyl, film, and broadcast television—but digital adoption surged in the 1990s with compact discs, digital audio workstations, and early internet protocols, culminating in widespread transitions like the U.S. analog TV shutdown in 2009,^[18] though the core shift occurred earlier in professional and consumer computing.^[19]

Technology and Engineering

Analog Signals and Systems

Analog signals are continuous-time functions that represent varying physical quantities, such as voltage, current, or acoustic pressure, over an infinite range of values within a continuous time domain.^[20] These signals, often exemplified by sine waves, maintain their amplitude at every instant of time, allowing them to model real-world phenomena like sound waves or electrical potentials without discrete steps.^[21] In engineering contexts, analog signals are generated by transducers that convert physical inputs into electrical forms, enabling processing in systems like amplifiers or filters.^[22] Central to analog signals are three key parameters: amplitude, frequency, and phase. Amplitude denotes the magnitude or strength of the signal, typically measured in volts for electrical representations, which determines the peak deviation from the zero reference.^[23] Frequency refers to the rate of oscillation, expressed in hertz (cycles per second), governing how rapidly the signal varies over time.^[23] Phase describes the shift in the signal's waveform relative to a reference, measured in radians or degrees, which affects alignment when combining multiple signals.^[24] Modulation techniques encode information onto a carrier signal by varying its amplitude, frequency, or phase, facilitating efficient transmission over distances. Amplitude modulation (AM) alters the carrier's amplitude proportional to the message signal while keeping frequency and phase constant; a basic AM modulator multiplies the low-frequency message signal with a high-frequency carrier, followed by a bandpass filter to remove extraneous components, producing sidebands around the carrier frequency.^[25] Frequency modulation (FM) varies the carrier's instantaneous frequency in accordance with the message signal's amplitude, offering greater noise immunity; it employs a voltage-controlled oscillator where the message signal adjusts the carrier's deviation, typically limited to a few kilohertz for audio applications.^[25] Phase modulation (PM) shifts the carrier's phase directly proportional to the message signal, closely related to FM as phase changes induce frequency variations; implementation involves a phase shifter controlled by the input, with the modulated signal expressed as s(t) = A_c \cos(2\pi f_c t + k_p m(t)), where k_p is the phase sensitivity.^[25] In analog systems theory, linear time-invariant (LTI) systems process signals without altering their form in a time-dependent manner, satisfying superposition and shift-invariance properties.^[26] The output of an LTI system to an arbitrary input x(t) is determined by the convolution integral with the system's impulse response h(t):

y(t) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} x(\tau) h(t - \tau) \, d\tau

This integral computes the weighted superposition of shifted and scaled input segments, fully characterizing the system's response for continuous-time analog signals.^[26] Analog signals are susceptible to noise and distortion, which degrade information fidelity during processing and transmission. Thermal noise, arising from random electron motion in conductors, manifests as additive white Gaussian noise with power spectral density N_0/2, predominant in resistors and amplifiers at room temperature.^[27] Crosstalk occurs when electromagnetic coupling between adjacent channels induces unwanted signals, such as in multi-pair cables, leading to interference proportional to signal strength in neighboring lines.^[28] The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) quantifies degradation as the ratio of signal power to noise power, expressed in decibels as \text{SNR} = 10 \log_{10} (P_{\text{signal}} / P_{\text{noise}}), where higher values indicate clearer transmission.^[29] The historical development of analog signals traces to early communication systems, with telegraphy in the 1830s using continuous electrical pulses for Morse code transmission over wires, establishing foundational signal propagation principles.^[30] In the 1890s, Guglielmo Marconi advanced analog systems through wireless telegraphy, inventing practical radio transmitters and receivers in 1894–1895 that modulated electromagnetic waves to send signals over distances exceeding 2 kilometers by 1895.^[31] Marconi's work, building on Hertzian waves, enabled the first transatlantic radio signal in 1901, solidifying analog radio as a cornerstone of modern broadcasting.^[31]

Analog Computing

Analog computing refers to machines that employ continuous physical variables, such as voltages or mechanical displacements, to model and solve differential equations through direct physical analogy.^[32] These systems operate by configuring hardware elements to replicate the dynamics of the equations being solved, allowing real-time simulation of continuous processes like fluid flow or electrical circuits.^[33] Unlike discrete numerical methods, analog computers process signals continuously, making them particularly suited for modeling time-dependent phenomena where the output directly mirrors the input's physical behavior.^[32] The historical development of analog computing accelerated in the 1930s with the creation of mechanical differential analyzers, exemplified by Vannevar Bush's 1931 machine at MIT. This device used mechanical linkages, torque amplifiers, and integrators to solve ordinary differential equations up to the sixth order, producing graphical outputs for engineering problems.^[34] During World War II, analog computers saw widespread application in ballistics calculations and flight simulations, where their ability to handle complex trajectories in real time proved essential for military advancements.^[35] These wartime efforts drove innovations in both mechanical and early electronic designs, transitioning from purely mechanical setups to hybrid electro-mechanical systems for greater precision and speed.^[36] Key components in electronic analog computers include operational amplifiers configured for integration and differentiation, which form the core of computational modules. An integrator, typically using a capacitor in the feedback loop of an operational amplifier, performs the operation \frac{dv}{dt} = \int u(t) \, dt, where the output voltage v accumulates the input u over time. Summer circuits, employing resistors connected to the inverting input of an operational amplifier, enable addition of multiple signals, such as combining derivatives in a differential equation setup.^[33] A simple example is modeling the differential equation \frac{dy}{dt} = -ky using an RC circuit, where the capacitor voltage v_c(t) satisfies C \frac{dv_c}{dt} + \frac{v_c}{R} = 0, yielding the solution v_c(t) = V_0 e^{-t/(RC)} with k = 1/(RC), directly simulating exponential decay processes like radioactive decay or circuit discharge.^[37] By the 1970s, analog computers were largely supplanted by digital systems, which offered superior accuracy, programmability, and ease of maintenance for general-purpose computation.^[38] Despite this decline, their legacy persists in modern hybrid computing paradigms that integrate analog elements for efficient real-time simulations of large-scale problems, such as computational fluid dynamics. In the 2020s, neuromorphic chips exemplify this resurgence, using analog circuits to mimic neural dynamics for low-power, event-driven processing in AI and sensor applications.^[39] As of 2025, advancements include analog optical computers that combine analog electronics and three-dimensional optics to accelerate AI inference and combinatorial optimization, as well as RRAM-based systems achieving high-precision matrix computing comparable to floating-point operations.^[40]^[41]

Analog Electronics and Circuits

Analog electronics encompasses the branch of electronics that deals with continuously varying signals and the circuits designed to process them, utilizing components that operate in a linear or nonlinear manner to amplify, filter, or condition analog signals. These circuits form the foundation for systems requiring precise handling of real-world phenomena, such as sound waves or temperature variations, without the discretization inherent in digital processing. Unlike digital circuits, which rely on binary states, analog circuits maintain signal integrity through continuous voltage or current levels, enabling applications where high fidelity and low latency are paramount.^[42] The historical evolution of analog electronics began with the advent of vacuum tubes in the early 20th century, which enabled the first practical amplification of electrical signals. John Ambrose Fleming invented the vacuum tube diode in 1904, allowing unidirectional current flow, while Lee de Forest's 1907 triode introduced control grid functionality for signal amplification, revolutionizing radio and telephony.^[43] This era dominated analog circuit design until the mid-20th century, when solid-state devices emerged. In 1947, researchers at Bell Laboratories, including John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, demonstrated the first point-contact transistor, a semiconductor device capable of amplifying signals with far greater efficiency and reliability than vacuum tubes; this breakthrough, detailed in their 1948 paper, marked the transition to transistor-based analog circuits. Further advancement came in 1958 when Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments fabricated the first integrated circuit, integrating multiple transistors, resistors, and capacitors on a single semiconductor chip, which enabled compact analog designs and laid the groundwork for modern mixed-signal systems. Core components in analog circuits include passive elements like resistors, capacitors, and inductors, alongside active devices such as diodes and transistors. Resistors control current flow and voltage division according to Ohm's law (V = IR), essential for biasing and signal attenuation in amplifiers. Capacitors store electrical energy in an electric field, facilitating AC coupling and timing in filters via their impedance Z_C = 1/(j\omega C). Inductors store energy in a magnetic field, opposing changes in current with impedance Z_L = j\omega L, though their use is limited in integrated circuits due to size. Diodes, typically semiconductor p-n junctions, enable rectification by allowing current in one direction, with forward voltage drops around 0.7 V for silicon types, crucial for power conversion. Transistors provide gain and switching: bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) amplify via current control between base-emitter and collector-emitter, while metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) offer high input impedance and voltage-controlled operation, dominating modern low-power analog designs.^[44] Common circuit types in analog electronics include amplifiers and filters, often built around operational amplifiers (op-amps) for versatility. Op-amps, high-gain differential amplifiers, are configured as inverting or non-inverting amplifiers to boost signal amplitude. In the inverting configuration, the input signal connects through an input resistor R_{in} to the inverting terminal, with feedback resistor R_f from output to inverting input, yielding a gain of A_v = -R_f / R_{in} and 180° phase shift, ideal for signal inversion in audio processing. The non-inverting setup applies the input to the non-inverting terminal, with a voltage divider (R_f and R_g) providing feedback to the inverting terminal, achieving a gain of A_v = 1 + R_f / R_g without phase inversion, suitable for buffering sensor outputs due to its high input impedance. Filters shape frequency responses: a first-order low-pass RC filter, often active with an op-amp, has transfer function H(s) = \frac{1}{1 + sRC}, attenuating high frequencies above the cutoff f_c = 1/(2\pi RC). A high-pass counterpart uses H(s) = \frac{sRC}{1 + sRC}, passing frequencies above f_c while blocking DC, both employed in noise reduction for signal chains.^[45]^[42] Applications of analog circuits span signal conditioning and power management. In audio amplification, op-amp-based circuits like inverting amplifiers process microphone or line-level signals to drive speakers, maintaining waveform fidelity with low distortion, as seen in professional audio equipment. Power supplies utilize linear regulators with transistors and diodes for stable DC output, where pass transistors adjust voltage drop to match load demands, though less efficient than switching alternatives. Sensors, such as thermistors—negative temperature coefficient resistors whose resistance varies inversely with temperature—convert physical quantities to analog voltages; for instance, a thermistor in a voltage divider produces an output proportional to temperature, amplified by an op-amp for interfacing with measurement systems. These circuits briefly extend to analog computing by implementing operational blocks like integrators, but primarily serve non-computational roles.^[46]^[47]^[48] Modern analog electronics faces challenges in miniaturization and integration with digital systems, particularly in mixed-signal integrated circuits (ICs) that combine analog and digital domains on a single chip. Scaling transistors at advanced nodes such as 3 nm and below degrades analog performance due to increased noise, variability, and parasitics, limiting precision in high-frequency or low-power applications compared to digital's easier scaling.^[49] Integrating analog blocks with dense digital logic introduces crosstalk, supply noise, and layout complexities, necessitating specialized design techniques like shielding and separate ground planes to maintain signal integrity. Despite these hurdles, mixed-signal ICs enable compact systems-on-chip for IoT and communications, balancing analog's sensitivity with digital's efficiency.^[50]^[51]

Science and Natural Phenomena

Analog Models in Physics

Analog models in physics involve employing one physical system to replicate the dynamic behavior of another, thereby facilitating the study of complex phenomena through more accessible or scalable setups. This approach leverages similarities in the governing equations or principles between the model and the target system, allowing researchers to observe and manipulate variables that would be impractical or impossible in the original context. For instance, the propagation of water waves has long served as an intuitive analog for electromagnetic waves, enabling visualization of diffraction and interference patterns that mirror light behavior.^[52] Such models provide empirical insights into theoretical predictions, bridging abstract mathematics with tangible experimentation.^[53] Historically, analog models have played a pivotal role in advancing geophysical understanding. In the 19th century, Lord Kelvin developed a mechanical tide-predicting machine in 1872, which used interconnected gears and harmonic analyzers to simulate tidal variations driven by lunar and solar gravitational influences, accurately forecasting tides for specific ports over a year in about four hours.^[54] By the 1920s, rotating fluid tanks emerged as key tools for modeling atmospheric circulation, with Carl-Gustaf Rossby's 1926-1927 experiments at the U.S. Weather Bureau demonstrating the Coriolis effect on large-scale flows, such as cyclone formation, through controlled rotations of water layers to mimic Earth's spin. These early devices underscored the utility of physical simulations in predicting natural events before digital computation became feasible. The mathematical foundation of analog models rests on principles of dynamic similarity, where the model's equations are scaled versions of the target's via dimensionless parameters that ensure proportional behavior under transformed conditions. A cornerstone is the Reynolds number, defined as Re = \frac{\rho v d}{\mu}, where \rho is fluid density, v is velocity, d is a characteristic length, and \mu is dynamic viscosity; matching Re between model and prototype preserves flow patterns, such as laminar-to-turbulent transitions, in simulations of aerodynamic or hydrodynamic systems. This scaling, formalized by Edgar Buckingham's \pi-theorem in 1914, ensures that key ratios remain invariant, allowing small-scale labs to replicate large-scale physics reliably. In contemporary research, analog models extend to quantum and relativistic domains, particularly through analog gravity experiments that simulate curved spacetime effects using condensed matter systems. Since the 2010s, acoustic analogs have modeled quantum phenomena near black hole horizons; for example, sonic black holes created in Bose-Einstein condensates trap sound waves (phonons) analogous to photons in gravitational fields, enabling observations of Hawking-like radiation emission.^[55] Recent advancements include 2024 experiments creating analogue black holes in laboratory settings that replicate the correct temperature and entropy, further validating Hawking radiation predictions.^[56] Lab-scale fluid dynamics tanks continue to model atmospheric patterns, visualizing vortex dynamics and jet streams via dye-traced flows under rotation. These setups offer advantages in intuitively rendering solutions to intricate partial differential equations, such as the Navier-Stokes equations for viscous flows, where physical flows provide direct, visual confirmation of numerical predictions without exhaustive computation.^[57]

Analogies in Biology and Medicine

In biology, analogies play a crucial role in understanding complex structures and functions by drawing parallels to simpler or familiar systems. Structural analogies, such as the comparison of bird wings to airplane designs, exemplify biomimicry, where avian aerodynamics—featuring flexible feathers and adjustable wing shapes—inspired early aviation pioneers like Otto Lilienthal and the Wright brothers to develop curved, cambered wings for lift generation.^[58] This analogy highlights how biological adaptations for flight efficiency, including wing aspect ratios and flapping mechanisms, informed rigid yet aerodynamically optimized aircraft structures, reducing drag and enhancing stability.^[59] Functional analogies extend this approach to dynamic processes, notably in neural systems. Biological neural networks, comprising interconnected neurons that process information through synaptic signaling, served as a foundational inspiration for artificial intelligence models, where layered nodes mimic dendritic integration and axonal transmission to enable pattern recognition and learning.^[60] These parallels underscore shared principles of distributed computation, though artificial networks simplify biological complexity by focusing on weighted connections rather than electrochemical gradients.^[61] Key concepts in biology further illustrate analogical reasoning through continuous, self-regulating mechanisms. Homeostasis exemplifies analog feedback loops, where physiological variables like blood glucose or temperature are maintained via negative feedback—such as insulin release counteracting hyperglycemia—mirroring cybernetic control systems that adjust outputs proportionally to deviations from set points.^[62] This analog nature allows for smooth, graded responses rather than discrete switches, ensuring organismal stability amid environmental fluctuations.^[63] Similarly, evolutionary analogies, like Charles Darwin's 1859 depiction of the tree of life in On the Origin of Species, conceptualize descent with modification as branching lineages from common ancestors, analogous to a growing tree where extant species represent surviving twigs amid widespread extinction.^[64] Historical developments in biology and medicine highlight the evolution of analogical models amid philosophical debates. In the 19th century, vitalism debates pitted proponents, who argued for an irreducible "vital force" animating living matter against mechanistic views reducible to physics and chemistry, influencing early understandings of organic processes like fermentation and development.^[65] Figures such as Justus von Liebig defended vitalism by likening it to gravitational forces, though empirical advances in biochemistry gradually eroded its dominance by mid-century.^[65] By the 20th century, analog models gained traction in pharmacology through compartmental approaches, pioneered in the 1930s–1960s, which simplified drug absorption and distribution as flow between hypothetical body compartments—such as a central blood pool and peripheral tissues—using differential equations to predict concentration-time profiles.^[66] These models, like the one- or two-compartment mammillary structures, analogized pharmacokinetics to hydraulic systems, facilitating dosing predictions for drugs like anesthetics.^[67] Medical applications of analog principles persist in diagnostic tools that capture continuous signals. Analog imaging modalities, including traditional X-rays, rely on photochemical processes where X-ray photons expose silver halide films via intensifying screens, producing continuous density gradients that represent tissue attenuation without discrete pixelation.^[68] Ultrasounds similarly employ analog transducers to generate and detect continuous acoustic waves, forming real-time images of soft tissues through echo reflections.^[69] Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) records analog heart signals as voltage-time traces, with amplitudes in millivolts and frequencies from 0.05 to 100 Hz, captured via skin electrodes to visualize cardiac depolarization and repolarization waves.^[70] In modern contexts, analog approaches inform prosthetic design, particularly myoelectric limbs that interface directly with residual muscle signals. These devices detect surface electromyographic (EMG) signals—analog electrical potentials from voluntary contractions—and translate them into proportional motor control for grasping or movement, as in targeted muscle reinnervation surgeries that reroute nerves to amplify detectable signals.^[71] Such systems restore intuitive functionality by mimicking natural neuromuscular pathways, though they require precise amplitude thresholding to avoid fatigue-induced errors.^[71] In recent medical communication as of 2025, analogies continue to aid patient understanding, including visual analogue scales for pain assessment and comparisons to familiar conditions for explaining novel therapies.^[72] Despite these strengths, analog methods in diagnostics face limitations compared to digital counterparts, particularly in precision and efficiency. Analog X-ray films suffer from fixed contrast and resolution (typically 5–10 line pairs per millimeter), prone to over- or underexposure without post-processing flexibility, leading to higher retake rates and radiation doses than digital systems with dynamic range adjustments.^[68] Similarly, analog ECG signals are susceptible to noise and baseline drift, complicating arrhythmia detection without digital filtering, whereas digital diagnostics enable quantifiable metrics and archival integration for longitudinal analysis.^[73] These constraints highlight analog's role in foundational, continuous representation but underscore the shift toward hybrid or fully digital tools for enhanced accuracy in clinical settings.^[74]

Arts, Media, and Culture

Analog in Music and Audio

Analog audio in music production and reproduction relies on continuous representations of sound waves, such as the grooves etched into vinyl records or the magnetic patterns on tape, which capture audio as varying physical or electromagnetic waveforms rather than discrete samples.^[75]^[76] Vinyl records, introduced commercially in the early 20th century, store sound by modulating a spiral groove on a rotating disc, where a stylus traces the waveform to reproduce vibrations mechanically.^[75] Magnetic tape, developed in the 1930s and widely adopted post-World War II, records audio by aligning microscopic magnetic particles on a plastic ribbon in response to electrical signals from microphones, enabling playback through a playback head that detects these variations.^[77] These analog formats typically offer a frequency response spanning 20 Hz to 20 kHz, aligning with the human audible range, though practical limitations like tape hiss or surface noise can affect clarity.^[78] In music instruments and synthesis, analog technologies emphasize organic signal generation and processing. The Moog synthesizer, first developed in 1964 as a modular system, utilized voltage-controlled oscillators to produce waveforms and filters to shape timbres, laying the foundation for electronic music production.^[79] The Minimoog, a portable evolution released in 1970, integrated these components into a compact keyboard, becoming a staple for artists seeking rich, subtractive synthesis tones. Vacuum tube amplifiers, prevalent in mid-20th-century audio gear, contribute a characteristic "warmth" through even-order harmonic distortion, where nonlinearities in tube operation add subtle overtones that enhance perceived musicality without harshness.^[80]^[81] Recording techniques in the analog era advanced through innovations like multitrack tape, which allowed layering of sounds for complex arrangements. In the 1960s, The Beatles pioneered extensive use of four-track machines at Abbey Road Studios, such as the Studer J37 introduced in 1964, to overdub vocals, instruments, and effects on albums like Revolver and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, transforming the studio into a creative instrument.^[82] Analog effects, including spring reverb—first integrated into Hammond organs in the 1930s and later into guitar amps by the 1960s—employed coiled metal springs to transmit and delay audio signals mechanically, producing a distinctive, metallic decay.^[83] These methods supported a dynamic range of approximately 70 dB on professional tape, balancing signal-to-noise ratio against saturation for expressive recordings.^[84] The aesthetics of analog audio have fueled ongoing debates about fidelity compared to digital formats, with proponents valuing the subtle imperfections like harmonic distortion for their euphonic qualities. In analog systems, low-level distortions from tubes or tape saturation introduce even harmonics that mimic natural instrument resonances, often described as more "musical" than the transparency of digital reproduction.^[81] This preference has driven a cultural revival, particularly vinyl's resurgence in the 2010s, as listeners seek tactile and sonic nostalgia. In 2020, vinyl revenues reached $619.6 million in the U.S., surpassing CD revenues of $483.2 million for the first time since 1987, according to RIAA data, continuing into the 2020s with revenues reaching $1.4 billion in 2024.^[85]^[86]

Analog in Literature and Publishing

In literature and publishing, analog formats emphasize physical, continuous media such as printed books and pulp magazines, where ink on paper captures narratives in a tangible, non-discrete form that contrasts with digital reproduction.^[87] Pulp magazines, produced on low-cost wood pulp paper, emerged as a key analog vehicle for popular fiction from 1896 to the mid-1950s, democratizing access to genres like adventure and mystery through affordable, mass-printed issues.^[88] The historical significance of analog publishing is evident in 19th-century serialized novels, which delivered stories in incremental parts via periodicals, as pioneered by Charles Dickens; for instance, The Pickwick Papers appeared in 20 monthly installments from April 1836 to November 1837, building audience engagement through this episodic format.^[89] In the 20th century, science fiction pulp magazines extended this tradition, with Astounding Stories of Super-Science—founded in January 1930 by publisher William Clayton—evolving into a cornerstone of the genre; renamed Analog Science Fiction and Fact in 1960 under editor John W. Campbell (who led from 1938), it emphasized scientifically rigorous narratives printed on digest-sized pulp stock.^[90] Thematically, analog often symbolizes unmediated, authentic experience in opposition to fabricated or virtual ones, a motif explored in Philip K. Dick's 1960s works; in novels like The Simulacra (1964) and Ubik (1969), characters confront simulated realities that erode distinctions between physical "analog" existence and digital-like illusions, reflecting Dick's view of consciousness as an analog process vulnerable to technological mediation.^[91] Publishing techniques evolved within analog paradigms, transitioning from labor-intensive letterpress—used since Gutenberg's mid-15th-century innovations—to offset lithography in the early 1900s, which transferred images from plates to rubber blankets for efficient, high-volume ink-on-paper production and enabled widespread color in books and magazines.^[92] Today, despite digital proliferation, analog print maintains a niche amid information overload, with specialized journals in literary and genre fields—such as independent science fiction titles and high-end cultural magazines—sustaining demand for their sensory depth and curated content, akin to vinyl's resurgence.^[93] Isaac Asimov's deep ties to analog science fiction publishing included prolific contributions to Analog, where he published over 30 stories from the 1940s onward, and his pivotal role from 1977 to 1982 as editorial director and namesake for Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine, launched by Davis Publications to complement Analog's legacy in print format.^[94]

Analog in Film, Photography, and Visual Arts

Analog photography relies on chemical processes where light-sensitive emulsions, typically composed of silver halide crystals such as silver bromide or silver iodide, capture a continuous range of light intensities to form latent images on film. These crystals respond analogously to varying light exposure, producing gradations of density that reflect the scene's tonal continuum rather than discrete digital pixels.^[95] In film cameras, this emulsion is coated onto flexible substrates like acetate or nitrocellulose, enabling the recording of still or moving images through controlled chemical development.^[96] The foundational milestone in analog photography was the Daguerreotype process, announced in 1839 by Louis Daguerre, which involved exposing a polished silver-plated copper sheet treated with iodine vapor to form light-sensitive silver iodide, followed by mercury vapor development to reveal the image.^[97] This one-of-a-kind positive image marked the birth of practical photography, though it required lengthy exposures of minutes in bright light. A pivotal advancement came in 1888 when George Eastman introduced Kodak's roll film, a flexible strip coated with gelatin-emulsified silver bromide on paper backing, allowing 100 exposures per roll and democratizing photography by eliminating the need for glass plates or individual reloading.^[96] Development processes, such as the wet collodion method that followed in the 1850s or modern black-and-white enlarging, involve chemical baths to reduce exposed silver halides to metallic silver, fixing the image while removing unexposed salts.^[98] In analog motion pictures, celluloid film strips—introduced in the late 19th century as a durable, transparent base for emulsion—captured sequential images projected at a standard 24 frames per second to exploit the persistence of vision for smooth motion.^[99] This frame rate, established by early sound films in the 1920s to synchronize with audio, provided a continuous analog projection experience, with each frame's light modulation creating fluid movement. Optical effects, such as dissolves or superimpositions, were achieved through mechanical printers or in-camera multiple exposures, while splicing joined edited strips using cement or tape to assemble final reels without digital intervention.^[100] Artistically, analog techniques emphasize tactile manipulation and inherent imperfections that digital processes often lack. In darkrooms, photographers employ dodging (blocking light to lighten areas) and burning (increasing exposure to darken areas) during printing to sculpt contrast and mood, alongside selective bleaching or toning with chemicals like sepia for aesthetic depth.^[101] The granular texture from silver halide clumps, known as film grain, adds organic randomness and emotional resonance, intentionally amplified in high-ISO films like Ilford HP5 for a gritty, nostalgic quality in genres such as street or documentary photography.^[102] These analog quirks influenced 20th-century movements like photorealism, where artists such as Chuck Close emulated photographic precision and subtle grain to blur lines between painting and captured reality, drawing from the medium's faithful yet imperfect light transcription.^[103] Technical control in analog photography centers on the exposure triangle: aperture (lens opening size, measured in f-stops, controlling light volume and depth of field), shutter speed (duration of exposure, affecting motion blur), and ISO (film sensitivity, where higher values like 400 allow low-light shooting but increase grain).^[104] These analog dials enable precise balancing without immediate feedback, fostering deliberate composition. Film's latitude—the dynamic range tolerance—typically spans 7-14 stops, permitting recovery of over- or underexposed shots during development or printing, unlike digital sensors that clip highlights more abruptly.^[105] By the 2000s, the advent of affordable digital cameras and sensors led to a sharp decline in analog film use, with major manufacturers like Kodak ceasing production of popular films and cameras as digital offered instant review and lower costs.^[106] However, a revival emerged in the 2010s and accelerated into the 2020s amid hipster and Gen Z cultures seeking authenticity and tactility, exemplified by Polaroid's resurgence through limited-edition instant films and collaborations that evoke retro immediacy and imperfections.^[107] This renewed interest has sustained niche markets for emulsion-based media, celebrating analog's irreplaceable warmth and unpredictability.^[108]

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Who's Who - Analog Science Fiction and Fact
The notable authors who have graced its pages include: Isaac Asimov, Kevin J. Anderson, Poul Anderson, Catherine Asaro, Greg Bear, Ben Bova, David Brin.
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Analog vs Digital - Difference and Comparison - Diffen
An Analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, ...
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The Unbelievable Zombie Comeback of Analog Computing - WIRED
Mar 30, 2023 · Engineers began using the word analog in the 1940s to refer to computers that simulated real-world conditions. Illustration: Khyati Trehan.
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Analog - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
1826, "an analogous thing," from French analogue (adj. and n.), from Latin analogus (adj.), from Greek analogos "proportionate, according to due proportion,"
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Analogy - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Early 15th c. from Old French analogie or Latin analogia, Greek for "proportion," meaning correspondence or ratio, derived from ana "according to" + logos ...
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Analogous - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
"corresponding (to some other) in particulars," 1640s, from Latin analogus, from Greek analogos "proportionate, according to due proportion," from ana ...
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Analog Clock – Definition, Clock Face, Clock Hands, Examples, Facts
It is a device that displays the current time using moving hands and a circular dial marked with hours, minutes, and sometimes seconds. It's called “analog” ...
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[PDF] 1) What are the differences between analog and a digital signals?
A continuous or analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time while a discrete or digital signal is one in which ...
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[PDF] A Mathematical Theory of Communication
THE DISCRETE NOISELESS CHANNEL. Teletype and telegraphy are two simple examples of a discrete channel for transmitting information. Gen- erally, a discrete ...
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Not Your Father's Analog Computer - IEEE Spectrum
Analog also has a disadvantage when it comes to increasing precision. In a digital circuit, precision can be increased just by adding bits. But increasing ...
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Advantages and disadvantages of digital circuit - Engpaper
One advantage of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits is that signals represented digitally can be transmitted without degradation due to noise.
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Analog Signal Processing: A Possible Alternative or Complement to ...
Aug 30, 2013 · DSP suffers fundamental drawbacks, such as high-cost analog-digital conversion, high power consumption, and poor performance at high frequencies.Missing: advantages | Show results with:advantages
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[PDF] A Characterization of the Analog/Digital Distinction - PhilArchive
The analog/digital distinction is related to coding systems, with digital using extensional coding and analog using isomorphic intensional coding. It pertains ...
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A Very Short History of Digitization - Forbes
Dec 27, 2015 · 1938 Alec Reeves conceives of the use of pulse-code modulation (PCM) for voice communications, digitally representing sampled analog signals. It ...
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[PDF] What Is New Media?
Moving into the twentieth century, the key year for the history of media and computing is 1936. British mathematician Alan Turing wrote a semi- nal paper ...
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What Is Digital Media? All You Need to Know About New Media
Mar 4, 2020 · Yet analog technology remained dominant even through the 1990s. In the years that followed, newspapers, magazines, radio, and broadcast ...Defining Digital Media · Examples Of Digital Media · Digital Media Jobs And...
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[PDF] Introduction - Purdue Engineering
Apr 1, 2011 · Continuous- time signals or analog signals are defined for every value of time and they take on values in the continuous interval (a, b) ...
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[PDF] Introduction to Signals and Systems
Continuous-time signals. 2. Discrete-time signals. Page 4. 4. 1. Continuous-Time Signals. • Signal that has a value for all points in time. • Function of time.
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[PDF] Chapter 2: Basics of Signals
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What is an Analog signal? Meaning &Definition - Keysight
Measuring analog signals The amplitude of an analog signal source is measured in volts, and the frequency of an analog signal is measured in Hertz. The unit ...
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Wavelength, Frequency, Amplitude and phase - defining Waves
Dec 2, 2017 · The phase involves the relationship between the position of the amplitude crests and troughs of two waveforms. Phase can be measured in ...
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[PDF] AM, PM and FM modulation
Amplitude modulation, AM, is one of the most straightforward ways of modulating a radio signal or carrier. It can be achieved in a number of ways, but the ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Chapter 2 Linear Time-Invariant Systems
The response of a continuous-time LTI system can be computed by convolution of the impulse response of the system with the input signal, using a convolution ...
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Thermal Noise - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Thermal noise is the most common type of noise present in all analog radio frequency (RF) and baseband circuits. Devices ranging from simple resistors to ...
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Transmission Impairment in Data Communication - GeeksforGeeks
Sep 19, 2023 · ... crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal. ... SNR = AVG SIGNAL POWER / AVG NOISE POWER SNRdB = 10Log10SNR.
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Jun 3, 2025 · If both signal and noise values are expressed in decibels, the formula SNR(dB) = Signal(dB) - Noise(dB) is a common shortcut for expressing a ...
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Wireless Telegraphy — ETHW
Guglielmo Marconi began his wireless experiments in 1895, and on 2 June 1896 filed his provisional specification of a patent for wireless telegraphy.
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Marconi Radio – 1897 - Magnet Academy - National MagLab
Marconi developed a means of transmitting a signal great distances and eventually commercialized a practical system.
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[PDF] Why Analog Computation?
The digital computer performs numerical opera- tions on discrete signals; in contrast, the analog computer performs algebraic and integro-differential ...
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[PDF] the differential analyzer. a new machine for solving differential ...
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[PDF] The mechanical analog computers of Hannibal Ford and ... - MIT
A mechanical analog flight simulator was designed and built by Ford Instrument Co. in 1945. Later flight simulators were based on electric and electronic ana-.
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Analog Computers: Looking to the Past for the Future of Computing
Oct 8, 2023 · Because an analog computer is a physical model of the problem it is solving, the complexity of the problem determines the physical size of the ...
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RC natural response - derivation - Spinning Numbers
The natural response of a resistor-capacitor circuit is a decaying exponential, v(t)= V 0 e−t/RC. V 0 is the initial voltage at time t = 0 t=0 t=0.
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[PDF] 1 A great disappearing act: the electronic analogue computer
By the mid 1970s, however, analogue computers had largely disappeared. Yet, more recently, digital simulation tools have drawn much from the analogue computer ...
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Using analog computers in today's largest computational challenges
Dec 17, 2021 · This paper discusses modern applications for high performance analog and hybrid computer. In the first part, we do a theoretical prediction ...
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[PDF] CHAPTER 8 ANALOG FILTERS
A simple, single-pole, low-pass filter (the integrator) is often used to stabilize amplifiers by rolling off the gain at higher frequencies where excessive ...
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Jan 24, 2019 · The diode, the simplest vacuum tube, was invented in 1904 by John A. Fleming; three years later came Lee de Forest's triode, and tetrodes and ...
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[PDF] EE2449_Exp.1 9-4-18 - Cal State LA
Sep 4, 2018 · Fundamental components in analog circuits are resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, and operational amplifiers. Fundamental ...
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[PDF] Op Amps for Everyone Design Guide (Rev. B) - MIT
The ideal op amp equations are devel- oped in Chapter 3, and this chapter enables the reader to rapidly compute op amp transfer equations including ac response.
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[PDF] AMPLIFIER APPLICATIONS GUIDE - Analog Devices
Audio IC Op Amp Applications, 3rd ed., V.22. Audio line receiver, V.5. CMR, V.11 interfacing, V.11. THD+N, V.11. Automatic gain control. See: AGC.
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[PDF] Thermistor temperature transducer-to-ADC application
Power-supply decoupling is required to prevent the noise from the power supply from being coupled into the signal being amplified, and vice versa. This is ...
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Temperature Sensors - Analog Devices
Analog Devices' analog temperature sensors provide current or voltage output proportional to the absolute temperature with accuracies of up to ±1°C. Our diverse ...
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[PDF] Challenges and Opportunities in Analog and Mixed Signal (AMS ...
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[PDF] Chapter 2 Classical Electromagnetism and Optics
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[PDF] Experimentation on Analogue Models SG Sterrett - PhilSci-Archive
May 31, 2015 · Summary. Analogue models are actual physical setups used to model something else. They are especially useful when what we wish to ...
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Lord Kelvin's Tide-Predicting Machine - IEEE Spectrum
Jun 2, 2024 · William Thomson's ingenious tide-predicting machine could plot a year's worth of tides in just four hours.
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Dec 7, 2010 · It has been suggested that an analog of a black hole could be created in a variety of quantum mechanical [1–6] or classical [7–9] systems ...
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Nov 8, 2016 · What Sonic Black Holes Say About Real Ones ... Can a fluid analogue of a black hole point physicists toward the theory of quantum gravity, or is ...
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Engineering nature - Royal Aeronautical Society
Jan 19, 2021 · Comparison of bird wing and aircraft wings. ... However, biomimicry of birds does not end with bird shapes but also with flight patterns.
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[PDF] AVIANS TO AIRPLANES: BIOMIMICRY IN FLIGHT AND WING ...
10 The aircraft's wing and tail structure mimics the eagle's long broad wings. The Bird of Prey has individually controlled feathers–. –a step away from ...
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Biological neural networks adapt and learn in diverse behavioral contexts. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) have exploited biological properties to solve ...
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In his book Cybernetics, Wiener (1961) developed the first formal mathematical analysis of feedback control in biological systems, concepts that have ...
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Jun 16, 2021 · Individual cells engage in long range extracellular feedback with other cells, ensuring continued homeostasis of our tissues and organs. Many ...
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Feb 12, 2008 · Darwin clearly considered this Tree of Life as an important organizing principle in understanding the concept of “descent with modification” ( ...
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A Critique Of Vitalism And Its Implications For Integrative Medicine
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Compartmental Analysis and its Manifold Applications to ...
CONCLUSION. The concept of compartment has come a long way from the first observations of less than a century ago to its modern use in pharmacokinetics.
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For oral absorption in particular, transit compartment models may be superior. The models represent the absorbed drug as passing through a series of ...
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Analog systems. Analog image detector of an X-ray unit consists of three components: X-ray film, intensifying screen and light-proof housing (cassette).
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A look at the contributions of the analog and mixed-signal components used in ultrasound imaging.
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May 10, 2010 · All ECGs pick up heart signals through electrodes connected externally to specific locations on the body. The heart signals are generated by the ...
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Limitations in current imaging systems ... At this resolution there was no difference in diagnostic yield between digital and conventional radiographs.
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Spread the Sound: A Brief History of Music Reproduction
The vinyl album harnessed the complexity of sound waves by carving a waveform into grooves in a large disc. The next step in reproduction was the development of ...
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[PDF] Magnetic Recording: Analog Tape - Stanford CCRMA
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[PDF] Capturing Analog Sound for Digital Preservation
Mar 10, 2006 · Magnetic tape, developed in Germany and brought to the United States after World War II, came into widespread use in commercial recording ...
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The compact-disc standard assumes that there is no useful information beyond 20kHz and therefore includes a brick-wall filter just above 20kHz. Many listeners ...
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Jun 20, 2024 · His breakthrough came in 1964 with the development of the first Moog modular synthesizer, which featured voltage-controlled oscillators, filters ...
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Sep 26, 2025 · Invented in 1964, the Moog synthesizer was a modular system comprised of individual units, such as oscillators, filters, and envelopes. One ...
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Aug 1, 1998 · The ear is much more sensitive to these IM distortions than to total harmonic distortion (THD). ... analog-to-digital converter running at 48 ...
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The Beatles and the changing role of the recording studio
... Beatles started their professional recording career in 1962, two-track recording was still the industry norm. By the early 1960s EMI's Abbey Road studio was ...
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The History of Spring Reverb - Pulsar Audio Plugins
Apr 9, 2024 · Spring reverb made its debut in Laurens Hammond's 1930 organs, initially designed for studio and home use. The organs contained large mechanical ...
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Analog Tape Recording and Playback Technology: The Principles ...
Apr 10, 2025 · Tape: Analog tape has a limited dynamic range, typically 50-70 dB for consumer-grade systems and up to 90 dB for professional reel-to-reel ...
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How Ink is Made: A Beautiful Reflection of the Analog World we still ...
Jun 17, 2014 · How many of us involved in publishing have any connection to the ink, paper and binding process of the great quantities of physical materials we ...
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SFE: Pulp - SF Encyclopedia
Feb 20, 2023 · Pulp magazines, as their name suggests, were printed on cheap paper manufactured from chemically treated wood pulp, a process invented in the early 1880s.
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History - Analog Science Fiction and Fact
Analog/Astounding is often considered the magazine where science fiction grew up. When editor John W. Campbell took over in 1938, he brought to Astounding ...
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Dick thus describes the difference between consciousness and the unconscious as the gap between digital and analog technologies, and he even speculates that ...<|separator|>
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The history of print from 1900 to 1949 · 1900 – Kolbus starts producing bindery machines · 1902 – Global advertising agencies · 1903 – Offset lithography is born.
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Jun 16, 2024 · A burst of small-batch, independent outdoors magazines like Adventure Journal, Mountain Gazette, Summit Journal and Ori.
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Daguerreotypes were made by silver-plating a sheet of copper, then treating it with an iodine compound to produce a coating of light-sensitive silver iodide.
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George Eastman, Kodak, and the Birth of Consumer Photography
In 1885, Eastman introduced a roll film holder that fit into existing cameras, with the silver bromide emulsion coated directly on paper that had been spooled.
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The Daguerreian Era and Early American Photography on Paper ...
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An Introduction to Photographic Processes | The New York Public ...
daguerreotype • One-of-a-kind image produced on a sheet of copper coated with a thin plating of silver. Developed by Louis Daguerre, the eponymous daguerreotype ...
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Film: The History of Celluloid in Filmmaking
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Glossary of Technical Terms Full List
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Jul 14, 2016 · Below, we capture 9 analog photography techniques used to create images with these early cameras. Heliography
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The Exposure Triangle - A Beginner's Guide - Photography Life
Jul 18, 2019 · Aperture, shutter speed, and ISO make up the three sides of the exposure triangle. They work together to produce a photo that is properly exposed.
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Feb 25, 2019 · This first article is to focus on three key variables in photography: shutter speed, aperture and ISO (film speed), and the relationship between them.
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The Rise, Fall, and Revival of Polaroid: The Instant Photography Icon
Aug 25, 2021 · Polaroid rose to fame and became popular among families and celebrities, but also saw a sharp fall when faced with digital camera market.
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