Leopard 2
The Leopard 2 is a main battle tank developed by Krauss-Maffei Wegmann in the 1970s for the West German Bundeswehr, entering service in 1979 as the successor to the Leopard 1 with enhanced firepower, protection, and mobility derived from advanced engineering and materials.[1][2] It mounts a 120 mm Rheinmetall smoothbore gun capable of firing armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot rounds at velocities exceeding 1,700 m/s, paired with a computerized fire control system for rapid target engagement, and is powered by an MTU MB 873 Ka-501 V12 turbocharged diesel engine delivering 1,500 horsepower for a power-to-weight ratio supporting speeds up to 68 km/h on roads.[1][3] Weighing approximately 62 tonnes in its baseline configuration, the tank employs multi-layered composite armor on the turret and hull, providing superior ballistic and anti-shaped charge protection compared to earlier designs, though later variants incorporate modular add-on kits for evolving threats.[1][2] Over 3,600 units have been produced across more than a dozen variants, from the initial Leopard 2 to advanced models like the 2A7 and 2A7V, which feature lengthened L/55 barrels for extended range, upgraded optics, and enhanced urban survivability packages including spall liners and mine-resistant underbelly designs.[1][3] Exported to operators including the Netherlands, Sweden, Poland, Canada, and Turkey, the Leopard 2 has seen combat in missions such as NATO operations in Kosovo, ISAF in Afghanistan, and Turkish interventions in Syria, where its reliability and lethality have been validated in high-intensity engagements despite logistical demands.[1][3] Continuous upgrades, driven by empirical testing and operational feedback, maintain its relevance against peer adversaries, with recent integrations of active protection systems addressing drone and top-attack vulnerabilities observed in contemporary conflicts.[2][3]Development and Production
Origins and Requirements
The Leopard 2 originated as the intended successor to the Leopard 1 main battle tank, which entered Bundeswehr service in 1965 but prioritized mobility over heavy armor protection.[4] Early planning for a follow-on design began shortly after Leopard 1 production commenced, driven by intelligence on advancing Soviet armored threats, including the T-62 with its 115 mm gun and the T-64 introducing a 125 mm smoothbore cannon.[5] These developments underscored the need for a new German tank capable of engaging Warsaw Pact forces on equal or superior terms in potential Central European conflicts.[6] In the mid-1960s, West Germany collaborated with the United States on the MBT-70 (or KPz-70) joint development program to create a next-generation main battle tank incorporating advanced features like low-profile hulls and hydropneumatic suspension.[4] However, escalating costs, technical challenges, and divergent national priorities led to the program's cancellation by Germany in 1969 and full termination in 1970.[6][5] This prompted the Bundeswehr to pursue an independent national project, formalized under the codename "Keiler" in 1970, with Krauss-Maffei tasked to develop prototypes drawing on lessons from the failed collaboration.[5] Bundeswehr requirements emphasized a balanced main battle tank for NATO's forward defense strategy, specifying enhanced firepower via a 120 mm smoothbore gun, improved protection through multi-layer spaced armor, and sustained mobility with a 1,500 horsepower MTU diesel engine targeting speeds up to 68 km/h and a 500 km operational range.[5] Initial designs adhered to a 50-ton weight limit for bridge-crossing capability (MLC-50), but observations from the 1973 Yom Kippur War, where heavy armor proved decisive against anti-tank threats, led to revisions allowing up to 62 tons (MLC-60) for thicker protection.[5] Additional mandates included advanced fire control systems for all-weather engagement and superior optics, ensuring the tank could operate effectively in diverse European terrains while maintaining export potential for allies.[6] The project received parliamentary approval in 1977 for production of 1,800 units at a cost of DM 6.5 billion, with the first deliveries occurring in 1979.[6]Prototype Development and Testing
Following the cancellation of the multinational MBT-70 project in 1970 due to escalating costs and technical disagreements, the West German government initiated the development of a national main battle tank successor to the Leopard 1. Krauss-Maffei Wegmann received the contract in 1971 to design and build prototypes for the Leopard 2, emphasizing enhanced firepower, protection, and mobility while maintaining cost efficiency. By 1972, the company had constructed 16 experimental hulls designated as the PT series and 17 turrets in the T series to evaluate various equipment configurations, component integrations, and subsystem compatibilities.[7][6] Technical testing of the initial prototypes commenced in 1973 at German facilities, focusing on mechanical reliability, ballistic performance, and integration of the 120 mm smoothbore gun derived from the earlier Keiler project. Troop trials followed in 1974, involving operational evaluations by Bundeswehr units to assess crew ergonomics, fire control systems, and tactical maneuverability under simulated combat conditions. These trials confirmed the prototypes' superior rate of fire and accuracy compared to contemporary designs, with the stabilized turret enabling effective engagement while moving.[6][8] In 1975, environmental and climatic testing expanded internationally, with prototypes subjected to extreme conditions at Shilo, Manitoba, Canada, for cold-weather trials and at the Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona, USA, for desert heat and durability assessments. These tests validated the MTU MB 873 Ka-501 diesel engine's performance across temperature extremes and the torsion bar suspension's adaptability to varied terrains, though some issues with electronics sealing against dust were identified and rectified.[6] To foster NATO interoperability and compare against the emerging XM1 Abrams, two Leopard 2 prototypes—designated as the Leopard 2AV variant with American components like the Honeywell AGT-1500 gas turbine option—were shipped to the United States in August 1976. Comparative evaluations occurred at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland through December 1976, where the Leopard 2 demonstrated advantages in mobility and gun handling but faced scrutiny over armor baselines. U.S. Army assessments noted the Leopard 2's chassis reliability from prior tests, influencing mutual design insights without direct adoption. Overall prototype results affirmed the tank's viability, prompting a production order in September 1977 for 1,800 units.[9][10]Series Production and Early Improvements
Series production of the Leopard 2 main battle tank commenced in 1979 under primary contractor Krauss-Maffei, with Maschinenbau Kiel (MaK) as subcontractor, following an initial Bundeswehr order for 1,800 vehicles across five batches placed in September 1977.[11][5] The first production vehicle was handed over to the German Army on October 24, 1979, entering service with the 9th Panzer Brigade of the 3rd Panzer Division later that year.[11][12] The inaugural production batch (Batch 1), designated Leopard 2A0, comprised 380 tanks assembled from October 1979 to March 1982, with Krauss-Maffei delivering 209 units and MaK producing 171.[13][5] These baseline models featured the 120 mm Rheinmetall L/44 smoothbore gun, MTU MB 873 Ka-501 V12 twin-turbo diesel engine outputting 1,500 hp, and Renk HSWL 354 transmission, achieving a combat weight of approximately 55.15 tonnes and a maximum road speed of 68 km/h.[5][14] Initial units incorporated the PZB 200 image intensifier for low-light operations, though early production emphasized core mobility and firepower over advanced electronics.[9] The second batch (Batch 2), produced from March 1982 to November 1983, expanded to 450 vehicles—248 by Krauss-Maffei and 202 by MaK—marking the transition to the Leopard 2A1 variant with refinements including removal of the crosswind sensor, addition of a thermal gunner's sight, revised ammunition storage racks for safer handling, and improved fuel filters to accelerate refueling.[13][15] Further early upgrades in subsequent sub-variants addressed operational feedback: the Leopard 2A2 involved retrofitting approximately the first 300 A0/A1 tanks with enhanced turret armor elements and other incremental fixes, while the 2A3 introduced digital SEM 80/90 VHF radios, modified exhaust grilles with circular bars for better cooling, larger NBC protective covers, and updated camouflage patterns like the Flecktarnauftrag (FTA).[15][9][14] These modifications, implemented during ongoing production through the mid-1980s, prioritized reliability, crew safety, and battlefield adaptability without altering the fundamental chassis or armament design.[16] By the end of the third batch in 1984-1985, over 1,000 Leopard 2s had entered Bundeswehr service, forming the backbone of West Germany's armored forces amid Cold War tensions.[13]Core Design Features
Chassis, Crew Layout, and Ergonomics
The hull of the Leopard 2 main battle tank is constructed from welded rolled homogeneous armored steel plates, providing the foundational structure for mounting the turret, suspension, and powerpack.[17] The chassis is divided into three primary compartments: the forward driver's section, the central fighting compartment housing the turret ring, and the rear engine bay separated by a fireproof bulkhead to enhance crew safety.[1] This layout supports the integration of torsion bar suspension with seven road wheels per side and allows for modular add-on armor packages on the frontal and side skirts.[1] The Leopard 2 operates with a crew of four: commander, gunner, loader, and driver.[1] The driver occupies the forward-right position in the hull, equipped with a reclined seat for improved comfort during long operations and three periscopes for visibility, including a rear-mounted camera with a 65° field of view displayed on a monitor for reversing.[1] [18] The turret crew consists of the gunner seated front-right with the EMES 15 stabilized sight incorporating a laser rangefinder and thermal imaging, the commander positioned rear-right with the PERI-R 17 A2 panoramic periscope enabling 360° day/night observation and hunter-killer capability, and the loader on the left side managing ammunition handling from ready racks.[1] An emergency escape hatch is located in the hull floor beneath the driver for rapid egress.[17] Ergonomic design prioritizes crew endurance and operational effectiveness, with features such as a spall liner in the fighting compartment to reduce fragment hazards, noise and thermal insulation materials, and an automatic fire and explosion detection/suppression system.[1] The spacious crew stations, particularly the driver's isolated compartment, facilitate reduced fatigue compared to more cramped contemporary designs, supporting sustained mission performance.[19][6] Additional mine protection kits, introduced from 2004, include underbelly plates to mitigate blast effects on the crew.[1]Protection Systems and Armor Evolution
The Leopard 2's foundational protection derives from passive multi-layered composite armor, incorporating steel plates of varying hardness, ceramics, elastic materials, and non-metallic components designed to counter both kinetic energy penetrators and shaped-charge warheads. Introduced in 1979, the original hull featured spaced multi-layer armor, while the turret employed welded steel structures with integrated composites for a baseline equivalent protection emphasizing all-around survivability over maximum frontal thickness. This design prioritized defeating contemporary Soviet threats like 125mm APFSDS rounds at typical combat ranges, though exact performance metrics remain classified.[1][20][21] Through the baseline to Leopard 2A4 production (spanning 1985-1992), armor refinements included enhanced composite formulations and the addition of internal spall liners to mitigate secondary fragmentation effects on the crew, addressing vulnerabilities observed in live-fire testing. These updates maintained the core spaced armor principle but improved overall resilience without significant weight increases, keeping combat weight around 55-62 tons depending on configuration. Export variants occasionally incorporated early modular side skirts for enhanced flank protection against RPGs.[22][23] The Leopard 2A5 upgrade, entering service in 1995, marked a pivotal evolution with the addition of wedge-shaped (Keilpanzerung) add-on modules to the turret's frontal arc and cheeks, forming hollow spaced armor arrays that disrupt and erode incoming projectiles via deflection, air gaps, and multi-hit capability. Primarily optimized against chemical energy threats like ATGMs, these field-replaceable sections also bolster kinetic energy resistance through geometric disruption, effectively increasing line-of-sight thickness without altering the base structure. Hull upgrades paralleled this with optional applique kits, enhancing mine resistance via V-shaped belly plates in later kits.[24][21][20] Leopard 2A6 and subsequent models (from 2001 onward) integrated advanced modular passive armor packages, such as upgraded composites for the glacis and turret, providing superior multi-hit protection against evolved threats including tandem-warhead munitions. Variants like the 2A7 feature reinforced belly armor and optional explosive reactive armor (ERA) tiles on some export models, as seen in Greek Leopard 2A4 HEL upgrades. Active protection emerged later, with Rafael's TROPHY system—capable of intercepting RPGs and ATGMs via radar-guided countermeasures—integrated starting in 2017 and first fielded on German Leopard 2 in 2024, augmenting passive defenses against asymmetric threats. Standard passive countermeasures across variants include 8-12 barrel smoke grenade launchers for rapid obscuration.[1][25][26]
Armament and Ammunition
The primary armament of the Leopard 2 main battle tank consists of a Rheinmetall Rh-120 L/44 smoothbore 120 mm gun in baseline models, capable of firing NATO-standard 120 mm ammunition at a rate of up to 12 rounds per minute when manually loaded by the crew.[1] Later variants, starting with the Leopard 2A6 introduced in 2001, feature the extended Rh-120 L/55 barrel, which enhances muzzle velocity and effective range for kinetic energy penetrators by approximately 20-30% compared to the L/44.[27] The gun is stabilized for firing on the move and integrates with the tank's fire control system, though it lacks an autoloader, relying on a dedicated loader position.[28] Ammunition carried totals 42 rounds, stored in the turret bustle and hull compartments designed with blow-out panels to mitigate internal explosions from cook-offs.[8] Standard German munitions include the DM12 multi-purpose high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT-MP-T) round for versatile engagement of armored and soft targets, and the DM13 armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot tracer (APFSDS-T), introduced in 1979 with the Leopard 2's entry into service.[29] Successor kinetic rounds such as DM33, DM53, and DM63 employ advanced tungsten or depleted uranium penetrators for improved armor defeat at ranges exceeding 2 km, with the DM63 optimized for reduced barrel wear and compatibility across L/44 and L/55 guns.[30][27] The DM11 programmable airburst munition, fielded from 2012, adds capability against infantry and low-flying threats by detonating above targets.[31] Secondary armament comprises two 7.62 mm MG3 general-purpose machine guns: one coaxial to the main gun with 2,000 rounds, and a pintle-mounted gun on the loader's hatch carrying 2,750 rounds, providing suppressive fire against infantry and light vehicles.[32] Some export variants substitute the FN MAG for the MG3, maintaining compatibility with 7.62×51mm NATO ammunition.[32] The coaxial machine gun is electrically fired, while the roof gun is manually operated, with both integrated into the fire control for stabilized aiming.[33] No anti-tank guided missiles or additional remote weapon stations are standard on baseline configurations, emphasizing the main gun's dominance in direct fire engagements.[1]Fire Control, Optics, and Electronics
The Leopard 2's primary fire control system is the EMES 15, developed by Rheinmetall Defence Electronics, featuring a stabilized gunner's primary sight with dual magnification optics, an integrated Nd:YAG laser rangefinder capable of measuring distances up to 10,000 meters, and a thermal imaging channel for night and adverse weather operations.[1][34] This system includes a digital ballistics computer that computes firing solutions accounting for variables such as ammunition type, barrel wear, environmental conditions, and target motion, enabling first-round hit probabilities exceeding 90% on stationary targets at 2,000 meters under optimal conditions.[1] The EMES 15 supports hunter-killer operations by allowing the commander to independently search for targets while the gunner engages. The commander's optics consist of the PERI R17 stabilized panoramic periscope, providing a 360-degree field of view with day and night channels, including third-generation thermal imagers like the ATTICA system integrated from 2013 onward for enhanced detection ranges up to 5,000 meters.[35][36] This sight enables target handoff to the gunner via a slaving mechanism, facilitating rapid sector coverage and independent stabilization for on-the-move engagements.[36] Auxiliary periscopes and vision blocks supplement crew situational awareness, with upgrades in variants like the 2A7 incorporating digital upgrades to the PERI R17 A4, including Class 1 laser rangefinders for precise ranging.[37] Electronics in early Leopard 2 models relied on analog components tied to the EMES 15, but progressive upgrades introduced digital fire control networks, such as the IFIS battle management system in configurations like the KWS III prototype, which integrates sensor data for networked operations akin to blue-force tracking.[38] Later variants, including the 2A7, feature fully digital fire control systems supporting programmable munitions like the DM11 high-explosive round with adjustable fuses, along with improved electro-optical sensors and auxiliary power units to sustain electronics without main engine idling.[39][2] These enhancements maintain compatibility with NATO standards while prioritizing reliability in contested electromagnetic environments through hardened wiring and reduced signatures.[40]Propulsion, Suspension, and Mobility
The Leopard 2 is powered by the MTU MB 873 Ka-501 engine, a liquid-cooled, V12 twin-turbocharged multi-fuel diesel developing 1,500 horsepower (1,100 kW) at 2,600 rpm from a 47.6-liter displacement.[1][32] This engine provides a power-to-weight ratio exceeding 24 horsepower per tonne in baseline configurations, enabling high agility despite the tank's mass around 55 tonnes.[1] The propulsion system pairs with the Renk HSWL 354 hydromechanical transmission, featuring four forward gears and two reverse gears for powershifting under load, ensuring reliable torque delivery across varied terrains.[41][42] The suspension employs torsion bars, with seven dual road wheels per side mounted on arms anchored to the hull, providing independent articulation for each wheel to maintain ground contact on uneven surfaces.[21] This system supports a ground clearance of 500 mm and contributes to the tank's ability to traverse vertical obstacles up to 1.1 meters and trenches up to 3 meters wide.[21][43] Mobility specifications include a maximum road speed of 72 km/h, though often governor-limited to 50 km/h in peacetime operations, with a combat range of approximately 500 km on internal fuel stores of 1,200 liters.[1][43] The design emphasizes cross-country performance, with low ground pressure around 0.89 kg/cm² facilitating operations in soft soil, while the high power output allows sustained acceleration and maneuverability in dynamic battlefield conditions.[21][1]Variants and Upgrades
Baseline to Leopard 2A4
The baseline Leopard 2 (2A0) initiated series production in October 1979 at Krauss-Maffei Wegmann, with initial deliveries to the West German Army commencing in 1980.[6] This variant featured the Rheinmetall 120 mm L/44 smoothbore gun, MTU MB 873 Ka-501 V-12 twin-turbocharged diesel engine producing 1,500 horsepower, and a Renk HSWL 354 transmission, achieving a top speed of 72 km/h and operational range of approximately 500 km.[1] The fire control system included the EMES 15 stabilized main sight with a xenon image intensifier for night operations, though lacking thermal imaging in the initial configuration.[3] Production of the 2A0 totaled around 380 units through early 1982, forming the foundation for subsequent incremental enhancements driven by operational feedback and technological maturation.[13] The Leopard 2A1, produced starting in 1982, incorporated refinements to address early production issues, including revised fuel filters for improved reliability, redesigned internal ammunition storage racks to enhance safety and ergonomics, and a thermal shroud on the main gun barrel to reduce infrared signature and maintain barrel temperature during firing.[3] Additional modifications encompassed side skirts for track protection and minor ballistic improvements to vulnerable areas identified in testing.[44] These changes were applied retroactively to existing 2A0 tanks upgraded to 2A1 standard between 1984 and 1987, ensuring fleet standardization without introducing radical redesigns.[12] The Leopard 2A2 represented a bridge upgrade primarily applied to pre-A1 hulls, aligning them with 2A1 features such as the gun shroud and skirts while eliminating the crosswind sensor from the fire control system to simplify operations.[13] This variant also integrated third-batch production adjustments, including refined exhaust grilles for better cooling efficiency, though it remained a limited transitional model without new-build production.[3] Empirical testing post-introduction confirmed these tweaks marginally enhanced reliability in field conditions, with no significant alterations to armor or armament baselines.[15] Introduced in late 1984, the Leopard 2A3 added SEM 80/90 digital VHF radio sets for superior battlefield communications interoperability, matching upgrades then applied to Leopard 1 fleets, alongside welding shut the rear turret ammunition reload hatches to bolster structural integrity against impacts.[3] Revised exhaust grilles further optimized engine performance, and approximately 300 units were manufactured through December 1985.[15] These electronic enhancements stemmed from Cold War doctrinal needs for networked armored operations, improving command coordination without compromising the tank's core kinematic or lethal attributes.[45] The Leopard 2A4, entering production in 1985 and continuing until 1992, marked the most prolific variant with over 1,800 units built, culminating in a total of 2,125 Leopard 2s delivered to Germany.[13] Key advancements centered on the fire control system, integrating a digital computer, laser rangefinder, and thermal imaging viewer within the EMES 15 optic, enabling first-round hit probabilities exceeding 90% at ranges up to 2,000 meters under day or night conditions.[46] The system supported stabilized firing on the move with accuracy within 20 meters at 10,000 meters maximum engagement range, reflecting data-driven refinements from gunnery trials.[46] Earlier variants were progressively retrofitted to A4 standards, establishing it as the de facto baseline for exports and operational service through the 1990s, prior to wedge applique armor introductions in the A5.[8] No substantive armor upgrades distinguished the A4 from predecessors, maintaining reliance on multi-layered composite schemes whose exact composition remains classified but empirically resisted contemporary kinetic threats in simulations.[5]Leopard 2A5 to 2A6 Enhancements
The Leopard 2A5 upgrade program, initiated by the German Army, focused on enhancing protection and situational awareness without major alterations to the core chassis or propulsion systems. In September 1995, the first of 225 Leopard 2A4 tanks were delivered in the 2A5 configuration, featuring a distinctive wedge-shaped spaced add-on armor module applied to the turret's frontal and lateral surfaces.[33][21] This modular armor, primarily designed to defeat shaped-charge warheads through disruption and spall effects while offering some resistance to kinetic energy penetrators, increased the turret's effective protection against contemporary anti-tank threats.[21] Additional improvements included repositioning the EMES 15 fire control system optics higher on the turret with supplementary armor plating, an electric-powered turret drive for smoother operation, and the integration of an independent thermal imaging commander sight (CIT-V) to enable hunter-killer capabilities.[38] These enhancements maintained the tank's mobility despite a modest weight increase to approximately 59.5 tons, prioritizing defensive upgrades in response to evolving battlefield threats observed in post-Cold War analyses.[38] The transition to the Leopard 2A6 variant, entering service with the German Army in 2001, primarily addressed firepower limitations identified in extended-range engagements. This upgrade retrofitted the existing 2A5 platforms—beginning with the same batch of 225 vehicles—with the Rheinmetall 120 mm L/55 smoothbore gun, extending the barrel length from 44 to 55 calibres for superior muzzle velocity and terminal ballistics.[47][9] The longer barrel enabled APFSDS rounds like the DM53 to achieve effective engagement ranges up to 5,000 meters, with improved penetration against armored targets due to higher impact kinetic energy.[47] Minor complementary modifications included adjustments to the gun mount and recoil system to accommodate the L/55, but retained the 2A5's armor and optics suite, ensuring compatibility without necessitating full redesigns.[1] The first 2A6 deliveries occurred in March 2001, reflecting a pragmatic evolution driven by empirical requirements for overmatching peer adversaries in precision fire at standoff distances.[9]Modern Variants: 2A7, 2A8, and Emerging Models
The Leopard 2A7, introduced by Krauss-Maffei Wegmann (KMW, now part of KNDS) in 2014, represents a significant upgrade over prior variants, emphasizing enhanced protection against improvised explosive devices (IEDs), mines, and rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs), alongside improved urban combat capabilities through the addition of a spall liner, reinforced underbelly plating, and optional remote weapon stations.[48] It retains the 120 mm L/55 smoothbore gun capable of firing programmable ammunition, paired with an MTU MB 873 Ka-501 V12 twin-turbo diesel engine delivering 1,500 horsepower for a top speed of 68 km/h and operational range exceeding 500 km.[2] The variant weighs approximately 64,500 kg in base configuration, with dimensions of 10.97 m length, 3.8 m width, and 3.64 m height, incorporating advanced fire control systems and a collective nuclear, biological, chemical (NBC) protection suite.[49] Subsequent iterations, such as the Leopard 2A7V (Verbessert, or improved), entered service with the German Army in 2019, featuring further armor enhancements including modular composite arrays and integration of the Saab Barracuda camouflage system for reduced infrared signature, while maintaining compatibility with the Rheinmetall DM11 programmable multi-purpose round for versatile target engagement.[50] The 2A7+ export variant, adopted by nations like Qatar, adds side skirts and a loader's periscope for heightened situational awareness, with a combat weight reaching 67,500 kg and turret roof height of 2.64 m.[49] These models prioritize survivability in asymmetric warfare, evidenced by their deployment in training exercises simulating high-threat environments, though real-world combat data remains limited outside Ukrainian operations involving earlier Leopard 2 donations. The Leopard 2A8, unveiled in 2023 as an evolutionary step from the 2A7, incorporates third-generation optics, digital fire control networks, and potential integration of active protection systems (APS) like the Israeli Trophy, though German procurement emphasizes sensor fusion and network-centric warfare compatibility over confirmed APS retrofits.[51] Germany ordered 18 units in May 2023 to offset transfers to Ukraine, with an option for 105 more, followed by a 105-tank contract in July 2024 for the NATO Lithuania brigade, deliveries slated from 2025 onward at a production rate capped at 58 per year due to cost constraints exceeding €10 million per unit.[52] [53] The Czech Republic contracted for additional 2A8s in September 2025, establishing it as the emerging production standard with a three-man turret armed by the L/55 gun and enhanced electronics for beyond-line-of-sight targeting.[54] Emerging models build on the 2A8 framework, including planned upgrades for export users like Spain's Leopard 2E to 2EM standards and ongoing KNDS initiatives for hybrid propulsion or AI-assisted aiming, though these remain in prototype phases as of 2025 without fielded deployments.[55] German Bundeswehr deliveries of 2A8s are scheduled through 2026, focusing on interoperability with allied forces amid European rearmament efforts, while production bottlenecks highlight fiscal trade-offs in adopting unproven technologies over proven mechanical reliability.[6] These variants underscore a shift toward modular, upgradable designs to counter evolving threats from peer adversaries, substantiated by simulator validations rather than extensive empirical combat testing.Specialized and Export-Specific Configurations
Export variants of the Leopard 2 often incorporate nation-specific enhancements tailored to regional threats, terrain, and doctrinal requirements, diverging from standard German configurations to optimize performance in diverse environments. These modifications typically include additional armor packages, updated electronics, and specialized kits for urban or asymmetric warfare, reflecting adaptations by licensees or upgrading firms like Rheinmetall. Such customizations have enabled widespread proliferation while addressing limitations in base models for export markets.[56] The Canadian Leopard 2A4M CAN represents an urban combat adaptation of surplus Dutch Leopard 2A4s, with 20 units upgraded between 2007 and 2011 for Afghan operations. Key features include slat armor cages on the hull and turret to defeat RPGs, a CROWS remote weapon station for the 0.50 caliber machine gun, improved thermal sights, and digital fire control enhancements for better situational awareness in close-quarters fighting. These tanks saw deployment by the Lord Strathcona's Horse regiment, providing empirical validation of the upgrades' effectiveness against improvised threats before returning to storage post-mission.[57][58] Greece operates 170 Leopard 2A6 HEL tanks, a Hellenic variant of the 2A6 incorporating local electronics and fire control systems optimized for Mediterranean operations, with deliveries commencing in 2008. These feature enhanced armor comparable to the Strv 122 but integrated Greek command interfaces and possibly additional passive protection against regional anti-tank guided missiles. The configuration balances NATO interoperability with national modifications, supporting Greece's large Leopard fleet amid tensions with Turkey.[59][60] Indonesia's 63 Leopard 2RI units, upgraded from acquired 2A4s under a 2012 contract with initial deliveries in 2013, integrate Rheinmetall's Revolution package elements including AMAP composite add-on armor for urban survivability and hull/turret protection against shaped charges. Completed by 2016, these emphasize mine resistance and tropical climate adaptations, positioning the 2RI as Southeast Asia's premier MBT for archipelago defense.[56][61] Spain's 219 license-produced Leopard 2E, based on the 2A6EX prototype and assembled domestically from 1998 to 2003 with 60% local content, features Spanish-developed fire control and electronics for Iberian terrain and export potential. Recent 2025 upgrades include Trophy active protection systems and Indra-Rheinmetall combat system modernizations to counter drone and ATGMs, extending service life beyond 2025.[62][63] Singapore's Leopard 2SG upgrades approximately 200 acquired 2A4s with composite armor modules, advanced optics, and MTU MB-837 Ka501 engines yielding 1,500 hp for high mobility in urban-island scenarios, entering service in the late 2000s to replace older AMX-13s. Additional 18 units from Germany in 2017 bolstered the fleet, emphasizing electronics for network-centric warfare in confined spaces.[64][65]Operational Deployments
Early Service and Peacekeeping Missions
The Leopard 2 entered service with the West German Bundeswehr on October 24, 1979, marking the handover of the first series-production vehicle from Krauss-Maffei Wegmann.[66] Panzerlehrbataillon 93, based in Munster, received the initial batch of operational tanks on August 1, 1980, initiating the phased replacement of the Leopard 1 across German armored brigades.[66] By March 1987, deliveries had reached 1,800 units, enabling widespread integration into frontline units amid ongoing Cold War deterrence postures.[6] Early operational use focused on rigorous training regimens and NATO maneuvers in West Germany, such as defensive simulations against simulated Soviet advances, which emphasized the tank's mobility, fire control accuracy, and crew ergonomics without exposure to live combat.[66] The Leopard 2's transition to international roles began with peacekeeping contributions in the mid-1990s. The Royal Netherlands Army deployed Leopard 2A4 tanks as part of the NATO Implementation Force (IFOR) in Bosnia-Herzegovina starting in December 1995, assigning them to mechanized battalions for patrols through villages and sector control in central regions like Donji Vakuf.[67] These vehicles provided overwatch, route clearance, and force protection during the enforcement of the Dayton Accords, navigating rugged terrain and ethnic enclaves while avoiding direct engagements, with operations extending into the subsequent Stabilization Force (SFOR) phase through 1996.[67] Germany followed with its debut overseas tank deployment under the Kosovo Force (KFOR) on June 12, 1999, committing 28 Leopard 2A5 variants from Panzerbataillon 33 to the multinational contingent.[68] Stationed primarily in the Prizren area, the tanks executed routine patrols, secured checkpoints, and conducted shows of force to deter unrest following NATO's intervention, operating without ammunition in turrets initially to comply with restrictive rules of engagement.[69] This mission highlighted the platform's adaptability to stabilization tasks, including urban navigation and rapid response, though logistical challenges like terrain-induced mobility limits were noted in after-action reviews.[69] Across these early missions, Leopard 2 crews accumulated experience in non-combat environments, validating upgrades like enhanced optics for low-intensity operations while incurring no losses to hostile fire.[68]Conflicts in the Balkans and Middle East
The Leopard 2 saw deployment in the Balkans primarily through NATO peacekeeping missions rather than high-intensity conflict. The Dutch Army integrated Leopard 2A4 tanks into the Implementation Force (IFOR) in Bosnia-Herzegovina from December 1995, employing them for patrols, checkpoint security, and force protection amid post-Dayton Accords stabilization efforts. These tanks operated from bases such as Bugojno and Novi Travnik, contributing to the transition from IFOR to the Stabilization Force (SFOR) in 1996 without reported combat losses.[67] German forces deployed 28 Leopard 2A5 tanks to Kosovo starting June 12, 1999, as part of the Kosovo Force (KFOR) following NATO's intervention. Assigned to Panzerbataillon 33, the tanks conducted patrols, secured checkpoints, and provided deterrence against ethnic tensions and militant activities in areas like Prizren and Tetovo in neighboring North Macedonia in 2001. While involved in occasional firefights, such as supporting infantry against Albanian insurgents in 2002, the Leopard 2s sustained no damage, highlighting their role in low-threat stabilization rather than direct engagements.[68][4] In the Middle East, Turkish Leopard 2A4 tanks entered combat during cross-border operations in northern Syria. Launched in August 2016 as part of Operation Euphrates Shield against Islamic State (ISIS) positions, the tanks supported Turkish-backed Syrian rebels in advancing toward al-Bab, a key ISIS-held city. During the ensuing Battle of al-Bab from November 2016 to February 2017, at least eight Leopard 2s were destroyed by ISIS anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) in urban ambushes, with reports indicating up to ten losses and two captures, exacerbated by insufficient infantry screening and exposure in built-up areas.[70] Turkey confirmed Leopard 2 usage in the January 2018 Operation Olive Branch targeting People's Protection Units (YPG) in Afrin, where the tanks facilitated rapid advances but faced ATGMs and improvised explosives, prompting German scrutiny over equipment exports. These Syrian engagements marked the Leopard 2's first significant combat losses, totaling over ten vehicles across operations, primarily due to tactical errors like operating without adequate dismounted support in high-threat environments rather than armor vulnerabilities alone. Empirical analysis from the battles underscores the tank's effectiveness in open terrain but susceptibility to guided weapons when combined arms integration falters.[71][72]Russo-Ukrainian War Engagements
Western nations began supplying Leopard 2 main battle tanks to Ukraine in early 2023, with Germany delivering 18 Leopard 2A6 models by March 28, 2023, following training for Ukrainian crews.[73] Poland provided 14 Leopard 2A4 tanks shortly thereafter, while Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden contributed additional units totaling around 80 Leopard 2 variants by mid-2023, including upgraded models like the Swedish Strv 122.[74] These deliveries supported Ukraine's preparations for a major counteroffensive aimed at reclaiming territory in Zaporizhzhia and Donetsk oblasts. Ukrainian forces first deployed Leopard 2 tanks in combat during the June 2023 counteroffensive, integrating them into mechanized brigades such as the 33rd Mechanized Brigade for assaults near Robotyne and Avdiivka.[75] In these operations, Leopard 2s demonstrated superior firepower, with reports of Ukrainian crews destroying Russian T-72 tanks at ranges exceeding 2 kilometers using DM53 or equivalent ammunition, leveraging the tank's accurate 120mm smoothbore gun and advanced optics.[76] However, advances stalled against dense Russian defenses, including minefields and artillery, limiting territorial gains to small villages like Robotyne by late September 2023.[77] Throughout 2024 and into 2025, Leopard 2s remained active in defensive and limited offensive actions, particularly around Pokrovsk and the Vovcha River in Donetsk. A notable engagement in November 2024 involved a Leopard 2A4 from the 33rd Brigade ambushing and destroying elements of a Russian armored column, including T-90s, despite the tank's older design.[78] Ukrainian operators praised the Leopard 2's quiet engine and mobility for enabling surprise attacks, with one commander noting Russian detection only at 200 meters compared to kilometers for T-72s.[79] Losses have been significant relative to the fleet size, with visually confirmed destructions tracked by open-source analysts. By September 2024, at least 21 Leopard 2A4s and 12 Leopard 2A6s were reported lost—primarily to mines, FPV drones, and Lancet loitering munitions—representing nearly 20% of supplied units, though actual figures may be higher due to incomplete verification.[80] Early counteroffensive losses included three Leopard 2s to Russian artillery on June 8, 2023, highlighting vulnerabilities when operated without adequate engineer support or air cover.[75] Despite these setbacks, the tanks' combat effectiveness in direct engagements has been affirmed, with minimal losses in some phases attributed to tactical adaptations like hull-down positions and combined arms use.[81] Ongoing attrition underscores the challenges of employing Cold War-era heavy armor in a drone- and artillery-dominated battlefield.Combat Effectiveness Assessment
Proven Strengths and Empirical Successes
The Leopard 2's Rheinmetall Rh-120 120mm smoothbore gun has exhibited high first-hit probability in both trials and operational use, with a Greek evaluation in the 1990s recording 19 out of 20 hits on a 2.3-meter moving target at range, outperforming contemporary Soviet designs like the T-80.[82] This accuracy stems from advanced fire control systems integrating laser rangefinders, thermal sights, and ballistic computers, enabling effective engagement of armored threats at distances exceeding 2,000 meters under varied conditions.[1] In Ukrainian service during the Russo-Ukrainian War, Leopard 2 variants have achieved notable successes in ambushes against Russian armored formations, including the destruction of heavily modified "turtle tanks"—slow, up-armored vehicles vulnerable to the tank's kinetic penetrators like the DM53 round, which leverage high-velocity tungsten cores for superior armor defeat.[83] Ukrainian operators have reported the platform as among their most lethal assets for breakthrough operations when integrated with infantry and drones, contributing to localized counteroffensives despite asymmetric threats like mines and artillery.[84] Crew survivability represents a core empirical strength, with compartmentalized ammunition storage—blow-out panels directing internal detonations away from the fighting compartment—resulting in high recovery rates for personnel even in penetrating hits, as evidenced in Syrian operations where Turkish Leopard 2A4 crews evacuated intact from damaged vehicles amid urban fighting.[85] The tank's multi-layered composite armor, including spaced and reactive elements in upgraded models, has repeatedly withstood non-penetrating strikes from RPGs and autocannons in peacekeeping deployments in Kosovo and Bosnia, maintaining operational readiness without catastrophic failure.[69] Mobility, powered by the MTU MB 873 Ka-501 V12 diesel engine delivering 1,500 horsepower, has proven reliable across terrains, with British trials in 1987-1988 rating the Leopard 2 as the simplest Western main battle tank for maintenance and field repairs, facilitating sustained operations in multinational missions like KFOR in Kosovo from 1999 onward.[86] This reliability extended to Turkish advances in the 2016-2017 Al-Bab offensive, where despite losses, Leopard 2s supported infantry in clearing ISIS-held positions through rapid maneuver and suppressive fire.[87]Identified Limitations and Real-World Losses
The Leopard 2's armor configuration, emphasizing frontal arc protection against kinetic penetrators, leaves side, rear, and top aspects relatively vulnerable to anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) and top-attack munitions, as demonstrated in combat where hits to these areas have resulted in catastrophic damage.[84] This design trade-off for mobility and weight—maintaining a combat weight around 55-62 tons depending on variant—reduces resilience against flanking attacks or overhead threats compared to heavier contemporaries like the M1 Abrams.[88] In asymmetric and urban environments, the tank's high silhouette and limited integral active protection systems on pre-A7 variants exacerbate exposure to drones and artillery spotters, with Ukrainian operators noting difficulties in concealing the vehicle amid pervasive reconnaissance.[89] Maintenance demands further compound operational limitations; the Leopard 2 requires specialized tools, parts, and trained technicians unavailable in forward areas, leading to extended downtime for repairs that simpler designs might avoid.[90] Real-world losses underscore these issues. During Turkish incursions into Syria from 2016 to 2020, at least 10 Leopard 2A4 tanks operated by the Turkish Army were destroyed, primarily by PKK/YPG ATGMs such as the Kornet and improvised mines in close terrain, where inadequate infantry integration allowed ambushes.[91] In the Russo-Ukrainian War, Western-supplied Leopard 2 variants have incurred visually confirmed losses tracked by open-source analysts. As of September 2024, Ukrainian forces lost 12 Leopard 2A6 tanks (6 destroyed, 4 damaged, 2 damaged and abandoned) alongside 7 Swedish Stridsvagn 122 (Leopard 2A5 equivalents), often to Russian Lancet drones, FPV kamikazes targeting weak points, or minefields during unsupported advances.[80] By April 2025, total Leopard 2 losses reached 38 (destroyed or damaged), out of roughly 100-150 delivered, highlighting vulnerabilities in drone-saturated battlespaces without robust electronic warfare or air cover.[84] These incidents reflect causal factors like doctrinal mismatches—tanks employed in offensive roles akin to Soviet-era massed assaults rather than NATO-style maneuver warfare—rather than inherent design flaws alone.[90]Comparative Analysis with Peer Tanks
The Leopard 2 demonstrates a balanced profile among peer main battle tanks, including the U.S. M1A2 Abrams SEP v3, British Challenger 2, and Russian T-90M, with strengths in mobility and fire control systems offset by vulnerabilities shared across platforms in drone- and ATGM-heavy environments.[92][93] Empirical data from exercises and limited combat, such as NATO trials and Ukrainian operations, indicate the Leopard 2's Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore gun achieves first-round hit probabilities of around 90-95% at 2-2.5 km against moving targets, comparable to the Abrams but superior to the T-90M's 125 mm system due to advanced digital stabilization and optics.[94][82]| Parameter | Leopard 2A7 | M1A2 Abrams SEP v3 | Challenger 2 | T-90M |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Combat Weight (t) | 62-68 | 66-70 | 62.5 | 48 |
| Main Gun | 120 mm L/55 smoothbore | 120 mm M256 smoothbore | 120 mm L30 rifled | 125 mm 2A46M smoothbore |
| Engine Power (hp) | 1,500 (diesel) | 1,500 (turbine) | 1,200 (diesel) | 1,130 (diesel) |
| Top Speed (km/h) | 70 | 67 | 59 | 60 |
| Power-to-Weight (hp/t) | ~24 | ~22 | ~19 | ~23.5 |
Global Operators and Proliferation
European Nations' Fleets
The Leopard 2 serves as the primary main battle tank for several European nations, with Germany maintaining the foundational fleet of 328 vehicles across variants including the Leopard 2A5, 2A6, 2A7, and 2A7V, supplemented by an order for 105 Leopard 2A8 units to equip a combat brigade stationed in Lithuania.[105][106] These tanks form the core of Germany's armored brigades, with ongoing modernization emphasizing enhanced protection and fire control systems.[2] Greece operates Europe's largest Leopard 2 inventory, comprising 183 Leopard 2A4s and 170 Leopard 2A6 HEL variants, integrated into mechanized divisions with plans to modernize the A4s for improved survivability against contemporary threats.[107] Spain fields 239 Leopard 2E tanks, a customized 2A6E derivative featuring Spanish-specific electronics and fire control, with recent approvals for upgrades to enhance firepower, protection, and networked battlefield integration.[108] Denmark maintains 44 Leopard 2A7 tanks, optimized for Nordic operations with enhanced mine protection and digital systems, supporting rapid deployment capabilities within NATO frameworks.[109] Sweden, having transferred older units to Ukraine, is acquiring 44 new Leopard 2A8s while upgrading 66 existing Stridsvagn 122 (Leopard 2A5-based) tanks to A8 standards, aiming for a total of approximately 110 modernized vehicles by 2031 to bolster armored maneuver forces.[110] The Netherlands currently operates a small number of loaned Leopard 2A6s but has committed to 46 new Leopard 2A8s for delivery starting in the late 2020s, replacing retired stocks and aligning with alliance interoperability goals.[111] Emerging acquisitions include the Czech Republic's order for Leopard 2A8 tanks, with potential for up to 122 units entering service from 2028 to equip mechanized brigades.[112] Poland operates a fleet of Leopard 2A4 tanks upgraded to the 2PL standard with reinforced armor and improved optics, though exact active numbers fluctuate due to donations and ongoing modernization efforts.[113]| Country | Fleet Size | Primary Variants | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 328 | 2A5/A6/A7/A7V | 105 A8 on order for forward brigade. |
| Greece | 353 | 183×2A4, 170×2A6 HEL | Largest European operator; A4 upgrades planned. |
| Spain | 239 | 2E (2A6E) | Upgrades for C4I and protection approved. |
| Denmark | 44 | 2A7 | Focused on NATO rapid response. |
| Sweden | ~110 (post-upgrade) | 66 upgraded + 44×2A8 | Replenishing post-Ukraine transfers. |
| Netherlands | ~46 (future) | Limited 2A6; 46×2A8 ordered | Transition from loans to owned fleet. |
| Czech Republic | Up to 122 (future) | 2A8 | Deliveries from 2028. |
Non-European Adopters and Transfers
Several non-European countries have integrated the Leopard 2 into their armored forces through exports primarily from Germany, often involving refurbished or surplus vehicles upgraded to meet specific operational needs. These acquisitions reflect the tank's appeal for nations seeking a proven main battle tank with advanced fire control, mobility, and protection capabilities, though transfers have sometimes faced delays due to political considerations in exporting nations.[1] Canada operates a fleet of Leopard 2 variants acquired to modernize its armored brigades. In 2007, the Canadian Army purchased 80 Leopard 2A4 tanks from Dutch surplus stocks and leased 20 Leopard 2A6M vehicles from Germany, with subsequent upgrades to 2A4M CAN and 2A6M CAN configurations incorporating enhanced armor, fire control systems, and desert mobility kits for deployments in Afghanistan.[114][115] By 2024, these tanks underwent sustainment contracts with KNDS Germany to ensure long-term operational readiness.[116] Turkey, a NATO member with operations spanning Europe and the Middle East, received its initial batch of Leopard 2A4 tanks from Germany in the early 1990s to bolster its tank fleet amid regional tensions. The acquisition included approximately 354 vehicles, which have since been involved in cross-border operations in Syria, prompting local upgrades for urban combat and integration with active protection systems like Aselsan's AKKOR.[1][117] Chile acquired 118 Leopard 2A4 tanks from the German Army in a 2006 government-to-government deal valued at around $200 million, comprising 93 refurbished and 25 new-build vehicles to replace aging Leopard 1s in its mechanized brigades. Deliveries began in 2007, with the tanks later modernized through collaborations including Turkish firm Aselsan for improved electronics and protection in Andean terrain operations.[118][119][120]| Country | Variant(s) | Quantity | Acquisition Year | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Indonesia | Leopard 2RI (upgraded 2A4) | 103 | 2013 | Ordered refurbished Leopard 2A4s with 42 Marder IFVs; deliveries started 2016; upgraded locally for tropical warfare.[121][1] |
| Singapore | Leopard 2SG (upgraded 2A4) | 96 | 2006-2007 | Purchased from German stocks; 66 refurbished for service, 30 for spares; enhancements include advanced armor and Singapore-specific fire control.[65] |
| Qatar | Leopard 2A7+ | 62 | 2013 | New-build advanced variant with urban combat package; deliveries from 2016; among the most capable export versions with integrated active protection.[122][123] |
Recent Contracts, Bids, and Geopolitical Implications
In September 2025, the Czech Republic signed a €1.34 billion ($1.57 billion) contract with KNDS Deutschland to acquire 44 Leopard 2A8 main battle tanks, with deliveries scheduled to begin in 2028 as part of the nation's armored force modernization amid heightened regional security concerns.[126][127] In May 2025, the Netherlands finalized a contract exceeding €1 billion ($1.1 billion) for 46 Leopard 2A8 tanks from KNDS, aiming to replenish stocks depleted by prior donations to Ukraine and enhance NATO interoperability.[128] Earlier, in February 2023, Norway ordered 54 Leopard 2A8 variants at a per-unit cost of approximately 19.7 million Norwegian kroner ($1.79 million), reflecting a broader Nordic push for advanced armored capabilities.[129] Lithuania committed to a €2 billion procurement of Leopard 2 tanks in June 2024, prioritizing rapid integration to counter potential threats from Belarus and Russia, though specific variant and quantity details remain tied to ongoing negotiations with German manufacturers.[130] Germany has also facilitated indirect transfers, approving the supply of 50 Leopard 2A8 tanks to Croatia in late 2024 to enable the latter's donation of 30 M-84 tanks (Yugoslav variants of the T-72) to Ukraine, demonstrating a quid pro quo mechanism for allied burden-sharing without direct Bundeswehr depletion.[131] These contracts underscore a surge in demand driven by the Russo-Ukrainian War, where empirical losses of older Soviet-era tanks have prompted NATO members to prioritize Leopard 2 acquisitions for their proven mobility, firepower, and sensor integration over less reliable alternatives. Geopolitically, the deals fortify the Alliance's eastern flank against Russian revanchism, as evidenced by Baltic and Central European states' investments signaling deterrence through qualitative superiority rather than sheer numbers. However, production bottlenecks at KNDS and Rheinmetall—capped by supply chain constraints and workforce limitations—have led to delivery delays, potentially exposing vulnerabilities in Europe's industrial base during prolonged conflicts. Rheinmetall's expansion of repair facilities in Ukraine since early 2025 further mitigates attrition but highlights dependency on Western logistics, with captured Leopard 2s analyzed by Russian firms raising concerns over technology proliferation and adaptive countermeasures.[132][133][134][135]Technical Specifications
The Leopard 2 main battle tank accommodates a crew of four: commander, gunner, loader, and driver. Its primary armament is a Rheinmetall Rh-120 L/44 or L/55 120 mm smoothbore gun, stabilized in two planes and capable of firing kinetic energy penetrators, high-explosive anti-tank rounds, and multi-purpose ammunition, with a typical load of 42 rounds. Secondary weapons consist of a 7.62 mm MG3 machine gun mounted coaxially and another 7.62 mm MG3 or 12.7 mm heavy machine gun on the roof, remotely operated in modern variants.[1][136][29] Power is provided by an MTU MB 873 Ka-501 liquid-cooled V-12 twin-turbo diesel engine delivering 1,500 horsepower (1,100 kW) at 2,600 rpm, coupled to a Renk HSWL 354 hydrokinetic transmission with four forward and two reverse gears. This configuration allows a maximum road speed of 72 km/h and a range of about 500 km on internal fuel. The tank employs torsion bar suspension with seven dual road wheels per side, hydraulic shock absorbers, and an interleaving design for improved cross-country mobility.[1][136][9] Protection features multi-layered composite armor on the hull and turret, incorporating steel, ceramics, and spaced elements resistant to kinetic and chemical energy threats, with later variants like the 2A7 adding modular wedge-shaped applique armor on the hull sides and turret. Dimensions for the Leopard 2A7 include a length of up to 10.97 m (gun forward), width of 3.77–4.00 m, height to turret roof of 2.64 m, and combat weight under 69 tonnes. Fire control systems integrate digital ballistics computers, laser rangefinders, and thermal imaging sights for the gunner and commander, enabling hunter-killer operations and firing on the move.[136][49][9]| Variant | Weight (tonnes) | Main Gun | Engine Power (hp) | Max Speed (km/h) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Leopard 2 (original) | 55.15 | Rh-120 L/44 | 1,500 | 72 |
| Leopard 2A6 | 62–65 | Rh-120 L/55 | 1,500 | 72 |
| Leopard 2A7 | <69 | Rh-120 L/55 | 1,500 | 68–72 |