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macOS

macOS is a proprietary [[Unix|Unix]] graphical operating system developed and marketed by [[Apple Inc.]] since 2001 exclusively for its [[Macintosh]] (Mac) line of personal computers. It is built on the [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] operating system foundation, which incorporates elements from [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], [[Mach (kernel)|Mach]], and other open-source technologies, providing a stable, secure, and multitasking environment optimized for creative, professional, and everyday computing tasks. The operating system traces its origins to the acquisition of NeXT Software by Apple in 1997, leading to the development of Mac OS X as a modern replacement for the aging classic Mac OS. The first public version, Mac OS X 10.0 "Cheetah," was released on March 24, 2001, introducing advanced features like the Aqua user interface, protected memory, and preemptive multitasking. Over the years, the naming evolved: from "Mac OS X" to "OS X" starting with OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion in 2012, and then to "macOS" with macOS Sierra (version 10.12) in 2016 to align with Apple's other platforms like iOS. Major version numbering shifted from the 10.x series—used for nearly two decades—to 11 with macOS Big Sur in 2020, reflecting significant architectural changes including native support for Apple silicon processors. As of November 2025, the current stable release is macOS 26 Tahoe (version 26.1), which introduces Liquid Glass design elements, enhanced Apple Intelligence integration for AI-driven tasks, and improved continuity features across Apple devices. macOS is renowned for its seamless integration within the Apple ecosystem, enabling features like universal clipboard, Handoff for cross-device workflows, and iCloud synchronization for photos, documents, and passwords. It emphasizes user privacy and security through technologies such as Gatekeeper for app verification, FileVault for disk encryption, and regular sandboxing of applications. The system supports a vast library of native applications via the Mac App Store, with strong emphasis on professional tools for video editing (Final Cut Pro), graphic design (Adobe Creative Cloud), and development (Xcode). Recent versions have prioritized performance on Apple silicon chips, delivering exceptional battery life, machine learning capabilities, and graphics acceleration via the Metal API. Additionally, macOS serves as the foundational platform for Apple's other operating systems, sharing core components like the XNU kernel with iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, and tvOS to ensure consistent developer experiences across devices.

History

Origins and early development

The development of the classic Mac OS began in the early 1980s, drawing direct inspiration from the graphical user interface innovations demonstrated at Xerox PARC. Steve Jobs' 1979 visit to PARC exposed the Apple team to the Alto workstation's bitmapped display, windows, icons, and mouse-driven interaction, which influenced the subsequent Xerox Lisa computer released in 1983. The Macintosh project, initiated by Jef Raskin in 1979 as an affordable appliance-like computer, evolved under Jobs' leadership into a full graphical operating system, culminating in the Macintosh 128K's launch on January 24, 1984, with System Software 1.0 (later retroactively called System 1). This OS pioneered a consumer-friendly GUI for personal computing, emphasizing intuitive interaction over command-line interfaces. Key contributors to the original Macintosh GUI included software engineers and . Atkinson developed , a bitmapped graphics library that enabled smooth rendering of windows, icons, and scalable fonts on the monochrome display, forming the core of the WIMP (windows, icons, menus, pointing device) paradigm. Hertzfeld, joining in 1982, architected the user-interface toolbox and operating system kernel, optimizing routines for the limited 64 KB ROM and 128 KB RAM to support desk accessories and basic multitasking. Their work, built atop Lisa's foundational elements like overlapping windows and pull-down menus, established the Mac's signature , prioritizing ease of use for non-technical users. The evolved incrementally from in 1984 through in 1991, addressing hardware advancements while maintaining . Early versions, such as System 2 (1985) and System 3 (1986), introduced hierarchical file systems and desk accessories for limited multitasking, but remained monochrome and single-user. Color graphics arrived in 1987 with Color , supporting up to 256 colors on the and integrated into System 4.0, enabling richer visual applications like . , released on May 13, 1991, marked a major upgrade by adding —using disk space to extend RAM—along with fonts, networking, and an improved Finder interface, though it still relied on the aging architecture. Despite these enhancements, the suffered from fundamental architectural limitations that grew problematic over time. It employed , where applications voluntarily yielded CPU control, leading to system-wide freezes if one program misbehaved or entered an . The absence of protected allowed any application to overwrite system or other app data, causing frequent crashes and without between processes. These design choices, optimized for the original 68000 processor's constraints, prioritized simplicity and speed but proved unstable as software complexity increased in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Apple's internal challenges intensified in the amid declining market share and failed modernization efforts. The Copland project, announced in 1994 as a protected-memory successor to with object-oriented components and preemptive multitasking, ballooned in scope due to and management changes, ultimately being canceled in August 1996 after consuming significant resources without a viable release. This failure, coupled with earlier aborted attempts like the Taligent and Kaleida ventures, highlighted Apple's struggles to evolve beyond the classic OS's monolithic structure. In response, Apple acquired NeXT in 1997, adopting as the foundation to address these longstanding limitations.

Development of Mac OS X

In late 1996, Apple Computer acquired NeXT Software for approximately $429 million in cash and 1.5 million shares of Apple stock, a move that brought , NeXT's chairman and CEO, back to the company he co-founded as an advisor to CEO . This acquisition provided Apple with , an advanced based on Unix, which served as the foundation for Apple's next-generation OS to address the classic Mac OS's architectural shortcomings, including its single-tasking limitations and vulnerability to crashes. Following the acquisition, Apple initiated in 1997 to integrate NeXTSTEP's core technologies with Macintosh-specific elements, such as the Finder and hardware drivers, resulting in a prototype operating system demonstrated at the in May 1997. The Developer Release 1, version 5.0, was distributed to over 10,000 developers on October 13, 1997, allowing early testing and porting of applications while retaining NeXTSTEP's for graphics. As development progressed, Apple emphasized openness by releasing 1.0 on April 5, 2000, as the open-source foundation of the new OS, comprising a derived from 3.0 for microkernel services and for Unix compatibility and userland tools. This release, available for download and on CD for $20, enabled global developers to contribute to the core OS components, supporting both PowerPC and Intel architectures and fostering collaboration ahead of the commercial launch. Parallel to kernel work, Apple developed the Aqua user interface and Quartz graphics system to deliver a modern, visually compelling experience distinct from NeXTSTEP's aesthetics. Aqua featured translucent windows, fluid animations, and a centralized Dock for application launching, while Quartz provided PDF-based 2D rendering with anti-aliasing and compositing for high-quality graphics output. These innovations were previewed publicly on January 5, 2000, at Macworld Expo in San Francisco, where Steve Jobs positioned Mac OS X as the future of the Macintosh platform, with developer betas already underway since late 1999 to refine stability and gather feedback. The announcement garnered commitments from over 100 developers, including Adobe and Microsoft, signaling broad industry support for the Unix-based evolution.

Rebranding and evolution

In 2012, Apple rebranded its operating system from Mac OS X to OS X with the release of version 10.8 Mountain Lion, announced at the (WWDC), by dropping the "Mac" prefix and Roman numeral styling to achieve marketing consistency with . This shift simplified branding across Apple's platforms, aligning the desktop OS more closely with its mobile counterpart while retaining the version numbering scheme starting from 10. By 2016, Apple reverted to including "Mac" in the name, introducing macOS with version 10.12 at WWDC, to better emphasize integration within the broader , including features like on Mac and enhanced for seamless device handoff. This rebranding underscored the OS's role as the core of Apple's unified computing experience, distinguishing it from while fostering cross-platform capabilities. In a further evolution announced at WWDC 2025, Apple shifted to year-based version numbering starting with macOS 26 Tahoe, released in September 2025, skipping sequential numbers after macOS 15 to directly align designations with release years for clarity in an era of rapid updates. This change reflects Apple's ongoing refinement of nomenclature to match the pace of innovation across its ecosystem. Throughout these rebrandings, macOS has trended toward greater convergence with , exemplified by features that enable app handoff and shared experiences like Universal Clipboard, alongside unified frameworks such as Metal for and compute across devices. Post-2016, Apple has intensified focus on privacy through on-device processing and permission controls, while integrating AI via Apple Intelligence in macOS 15.1 and later, prioritizing user data protection with Private Cloud Compute for advanced tasks.

Major milestones and transitions

The release of the Mac OS X Public Beta, codenamed Kodiak, on September 13, 2000, served as the first public preview of Apple's next-generation operating system, allowing developers and early adopters to test its Aqua user interface and underlying technologies for a price of $29.95. This beta was distributed via CD and online, marking a significant step in transitioning from the classic Mac OS to a Unix-based foundation, and it generated substantial interest among the Macintosh community as evidence of Apple's commitment to modernizing its platform. A pivotal hardware shift occurred in 2005 when Apple announced at its (WWDC) that it would transition Mac computers from PowerPC processors to x86 architecture, a move revealed by CEO to address limitations and enable broader software compatibility. The transition began with the introduction of the first -based Macs, such as the and , in January 2006, and was completed by the end of that year with the phase-out of PowerPC models. To ensure seamless compatibility during this period, Apple introduced , a layer that allowed PowerPC applications to run on hardware with minimal impact. In January 2011, Apple launched the as part of the OS X 10.6.6 update, with full integration in OS X 10.7 later that year, fundamentally transforming for the platform by offering a centralized, user-friendly marketplace similar to the iOS . This innovation enabled developers to reach millions of users easily while providing consumers with secure, one-click purchases of thousands of applications, boosting the Mac ecosystem's growth and accessibility. Another major architectural transition was announced at WWDC 2020, when Apple revealed plans to shift from processors to its custom chips, starting with the system-on-a-chip. The first Macs, including the , , and , debuted in November 2020, delivering significant improvements in performance, power efficiency, and integration with macOS. By 2025, Apple had fully ended production of Intel-based Macs, completing the shift and enabling features like enhanced security and capabilities optimized for on-device processing. Beginning in 2024, macOS integrated Apple Intelligence, a suite of AI-powered features announced at WWDC and first rolled out in macOS Sequoia 15.1, emphasizing on-device for tasks like writing assistance, image generation, and enhanced Siri interactions. This marked a strategic evolution toward privacy-focused, generative AI deeply embedded in the operating system, leveraging Apple silicon's neural engine to process data locally without relying on cloud services for core functions.

Architecture

Core kernel and Darwin

Darwin serves as the open-source, Unix-like operating system core underlying macOS, providing foundational components such as the kernel, basic utilities, and networking services while excluding proprietary elements like the Aqua user interface or Cocoa frameworks. Released under the Apple Public Source License (APSL), Darwin enables developers worldwide to access, modify, and contribute to its codebase, fostering innovation in Unix-compatible systems. At its heart is the XNU kernel, which integrates Mach 3.0 for core services like process management, virtual memory, and inter-process communication; BSD subsystems for file systems, POSIX APIs, and security models; and IOKit for object-oriented device drivers supporting plug-and-play functionality and power management. XNU employs a architecture, blending the modularity of a —derived from for isolating critical functions and enhancing stability—with monolithic elements from BSD to optimize performance in areas like system calls and driver execution. This design allows for efficient resource handling while maintaining extensibility, as drivers can be loaded dynamically without rebooting the system. was first publicly released as version 1.0 on April 5, 2000, establishing its compliance through the BSD layer to ensure compatibility with standard Unix applications and tools. Subsequent updates have incorporated advancements like kernel-level support for Grand Central Dispatch (GCD), Apple's concurrency framework that leverages multicore processors by dispatching tasks to thread pools managed at the kernel level for improved scalability and efficiency. Security is deeply integrated into , with features such as enforced at the level to verify the integrity and origin of executable code, including kernel extensions (KEXTs) and applications, preventing unauthorized modifications or execution. This mechanism uses cryptographic signatures to gate-load only trusted binaries, bolstering system integrity from boot-up onward. Apple maintains primarily through its official open-source project hosted at opensource.apple.com, where it periodically releases updated source tarballs for components like , incorporating internal enhancements while selectively integrating community contributions to align with macOS evolution. This ongoing stewardship ensures remains a robust, POSIX-compliant foundation, with versions synchronized to macOS releases for sustained compatibility and performance.

Frameworks and APIs

The framework serves as the primary application programming interface (API) for developing native macOS applications, consisting of two core components: and AppKit. provides essential classes for , data management, collections, and operating system services, forming the base layer for application logic. AppKit builds upon to deliver elements, such as windows, controls, and event handling, enabling developers to create responsive graphical applications. Originating from the operating system developed by in 1989, evolved through the standard in 1994 and was integrated into macOS following Apple's acquisition of NeXT in 1997, leveraging the language as its foundational runtime. The Carbon API was introduced to facilitate the porting of legacy applications from the classic Mac OS to macOS, offering a procedural C-based interface compatible with older codebases while integrating with the modern architecture. It allowed developers to maintain compatibility for applications relying on the Carbon Event Manager, file handling, and other system services without a full rewrite to object-oriented paradigms. However, Carbon has been progressively deprecated since macOS 10.8, with many components marked as obsolete, and full support effectively ended after macOS 10.15 Catalina, which removed 32-bit application compatibility essential for remaining Carbon-based software. Metal, Apple's graphics and compute , was introduced at WWDC to provide low-overhead access to GPU hardware for high-performance rendering and tasks on macOS. It enables developers to create shaders, manage buffers, and optimize pipelines for graphics-intensive applications like games and visual effects, with tight integration into the system for efficient resource allocation. Metal superseded as the recommended graphics starting with 10.14, where was deprecated, offering superior performance and support for modern GPU features without the overhead of legacy abstractions. Swift, a modern programming language developed by Apple, has been integrated into macOS development since its announcement at WWDC 2014, providing a safe, fast alternative to Objective-C with features like type inference, optionals, and concurrency support. It interoperates seamlessly with Cocoa frameworks, allowing developers to mix Swift and Objective-C code in applications. In 2019, Apple introduced SwiftUI at WWDC as a declarative UI framework built on Swift, enabling cross-platform interface design with live previews and automatic layout adaptations for macOS, reducing boilerplate code compared to imperative approaches in AppKit. Core Animation and Quartz 2D form key components of macOS's graphics stack for rendering and . Core Animation, part of the QuartzCore framework, manages layered animations and transformations off the main thread, leveraging GPU acceleration for smooth transitions and visual effects in user interfaces. Quartz 2D, within the Core Graphics framework, handles 2D vector drawing, image processing, and PDF rendering with device-independent resolution and , serving as the foundation for on-screen in AppKit views. Together, they enable efficient, high-fidelity graphics composition without direct hardware management.

Compatibility layers

macOS incorporates several compatibility layers to enable the execution of software developed for previous architectures and operating system versions, facilitating smooth transitions during hardware shifts without requiring immediate recompilation of all applications. Universal binaries, introduced in 2005 with Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger, allow a single executable file to contain code for multiple processor architectures, such as PowerPC and Intel x86, enabling seamless operation across different Mac hardware without emulation. Developers can compile applications using Xcode to produce these fat binaries, which the system selects the appropriate slice for based on the host architecture. This approach has been extended to support Apple silicon alongside Intel, maintaining backward compatibility for mixed environments. The Classic Environment, available in early versions of Mac OS X from 10.0 to 10.4, provided emulation for legacy applications built for and earlier, running them within a virtualized Macintosh environment alongside native OS X apps. This layer emulated the PowerPC and 68K instruction sets, supporting non-Carbonized software through a dedicated system folder installed on the Mac. It allowed users to launch classic applications directly from the Finder without rebooting, though with limitations in hardware driver support and performance. The environment was deprecated starting with Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard, as Apple encouraged migration to or Carbon frameworks. Rosetta 1, released in 2006 alongside the transition to Intel processors in , served as a layer that converted PowerPC instructions to Intel x86 at , permitting most PowerPC-based Mac OS X applications to run on Intel-based Macs with minimal performance degradation. This dynamic translation enabled a two-year transition period for developers to update software, and it was included by default in Mac OS X 10.4 through 10.6 . 1 was discontinued in Mac OS X 10.7 in 2011, after which PowerPC applications required or alternative solutions to run. Rosetta 2, introduced in 2020 with and the shift to , translates x86_64 binaries to ARM-based code for execution on M-series processors, using dynamic to maintain compatibility for legacy applications. It employs for efficient runtime conversion, supporting features like AVX and AVX2 instructions while excluding AVX512. Users can install 2 on demand when launching an Intel app, and it integrates transparently, though translated apps may experience slightly longer launch times compared to native versions. As of 2025, 2 remains active on Macs running macOS Tahoe (version 26) and later. macOS also supports virtualization through the Hypervisor.framework, introduced in macOS 10.10 Yosemite, which enables developers to create and manage virtual machines from user-space applications for running guest operating systems like Windows or . This low-level API leverages hardware virtualization extensions on and to facilitate efficient VM operation, including support for x86_64 and guests, without kernel extensions. It powers higher-level tools like the framework for creating macOS and VMs, enhancing cross-platform compatibility.

Hardware support and transitions

macOS initially supported Apple's PowerPC-based Macintosh computers, which were powered by processors such as the PowerPC G3 (introduced in 1997), G4 (2001), and G5 (2003) chips, from the system's origins in 2001 until 2006. In 2005, Apple announced a transition to Intel x86-64 processors, beginning with the Core Duo in early 2006 models like the iMac G5 replacement and completing the shift across the Mac lineup by August 2006 with the last PowerPC-based Mac Pro. This change supported a range of Intel chips, evolving from Core Duo to Core 2 Duo, Core i5, i7, and up to Core i9 in later models through 2020. The Intel architecture enabled features like Boot Camp, introduced in April 2006 as a beta utility allowing dual-booting of Windows XP on Intel-based Macs, expanding hardware versatility. Apple initiated a shift to its custom ARM-based processors in June 2020, starting with the chip debuted in November 2020 across , 13-inch , and models. Subsequent generations included the (2022), M3 (2023), and M4 (2024) families, featuring a unified that integrates directly onto the system-on-a-chip for reduced latency and higher efficiency. This design delivered performance improvements of up to 3.5 times in CPU tasks compared to equivalent Intel-based predecessors, while enhancing battery life and thermal management. macOS Tahoe (version 26), released in 2025, marks the final major release supporting Intel-based Macs, with limited to select 2019–2020 models like the (2019) alongside all -equipped systems from 2020 onward; subsequent versions will require processors exclusively. Over time, minimum hardware requirements for macOS have evolved to reflect advancing capabilities, with base configurations standardizing at 8 GB of unified memory by 2020 for Macs, rising to 16 GB across the lineup by late 2024 to support features like Apple Intelligence. layers, such as Rosetta 2, have facilitated application execution across these architectural shifts.

Features

User interface and design

The Aqua user interface, introduced with Mac OS X 10.0 Cheetah in 2001, defined macOS's initial visual paradigm through its use of liquid-like animations, subtle gradients, and textured elements such as brushed metal appearances in toolbars and pinstriped backgrounds in windows. This design emphasized depth and translucency, with glassy effects that simulated reflections and shadows to create an immersive, three-dimensional feel, while maintaining consistency across system elements like menus and buttons. Over subsequent releases, Aqua evolved from its early metallic and striped aesthetics toward more refined translucent overlays, adapting to hardware advancements in rendering capabilities provided by frameworks like Quartz for 2D graphics compositing. Significant shifts in macOS's design language occurred with OS X Yosemite in 2014, which adopted a flat design aesthetic by removing heavy shadows and textures in favor of simplified icons, vibrant colors, and layered translucency to enhance readability and integration with . This modernization continued in in 2020, introducing rounded corners on windows and buttons, increased depth through subtle blurring and transparency effects, and a more spacious layout that amplified content visibility while preserving Aqua's core principles of fluidity. The , serving as the central application launcher and task switcher since its debut in the Mac OS X Public Beta in 2000 and included in Mac OS X 10.0 in 2001, features a customizable horizontal or vertical bar of icons at the screen's edge, supporting magnification on hover and quick access to running apps via animations. Complementing this, Mission Control, launched in OS X Lion in 2011, provides an overview of all open windows, full-screen apps, and virtual desktops in a unified, , enabling seamless navigation and organization through gestures or shortcuts. Multi-touch gesture support, integrated since the introduction of trackpads in 2006 MacBook models, allows intuitive interactions like two-finger scrolling, pinching to zoom, and three-finger swipes for switching apps or activating Mission Control, enhancing productivity on portable Macs. In 2018, added dark mode, which inverts the interface to a high-contrast black theme for reduced in low-light environments, alongside dynamic wallpapers that automatically adjust colors and brightness based on time of day to harmonize with the system's appearance. In macOS 26 Tahoe (2025), the design language further evolved with Liquid Glass elements, enhancing translucency and fluidity in interface components for a more immersive experience.

Built-in applications

macOS includes a suite of built-in applications designed to handle core productivity, media management, and system utilities, providing seamless integration with the operating system's frameworks for file handling, communication, and content creation. These apps are pre-installed on every and leverage macOS-specific features like synchronization and to enhance user experience without requiring third-party software. Apple Intelligence, introduced in macOS 15 and enhanced in later versions, integrates AI capabilities into several apps for tasks like text summarization, , and notification prioritization. The serves as the primary in macOS, enabling users to browse, organize, and access files and folders across local storage, external drives, and networked locations. Introduced with the original Macintosh in , it has evolved to support multiple viewing modes, including icon view for visual representation, list view for sortable text-based displays, and column view for hierarchical navigation through directories. Additional features include tagging for quick searches, Smart Folders for dynamic content organization, and a customizable sidebar for frequent access points. Safari, Apple's default , has been integrated into macOS since its release in as a lightweight alternative to third-party browsers, built on the rendering engine for efficient page loading and standards compliance. It emphasizes and performance with features such as Intelligent Tracking Prevention, which uses on-device to detect and block cross-site trackers by limiting lifetimes and hiding addresses from known tracking domains. Other capabilities include tab management, reader mode for distraction-free reading, and extensions support via the . The , , and Contacts applications form a interconnected trio for , each supporting synchronization to keep data consistent across Apple devices. handles email composition, threading, and search with VIP filters for important senders, while integrating detection powered by . With Apple Intelligence, offers writing tools for composing and proofreading emails. allows event creation, reminders, and shared calendars with input for scheduling, syncing bidirectionally via for real-time updates. Contacts manages address books with photo integration and smart groups, ensuring contact details like phone numbers and emails propagate across apps and devices through . For media handling, macOS provides dedicated apps to organize and play content. , introduced in 2015 as the successor to , serves as the central library for importing, editing, and sharing images and videos, featuring automatic organization by faces, places, and objects using on-device intelligence, along with non-destructive editing tools like filters and cropping. Apple Intelligence enhances with features like natural language search and generative editing. , rebranded from in 2019 with , focuses on audio playback and library management, supporting streaming, offline downloads, and personalized playlists generated via algorithmic recommendations. QuickTime Player handles video and audio playback, offering basic editing like trimming and format conversion, with support for hardware-accelerated decoding on for smooth performance. Utility applications round out the suite with essential tools for document handling and system interaction. Preview acts as the default viewer and editor for PDFs and images, allowing annotations, signatures, multi-page merging, and text selection without external software, leveraging macOS's framework for high-fidelity rendering. Terminal provides command-line access to the underlying Unix-based kernel, enabling shell scripting, package management via Homebrew integration, and advanced diagnostics for developers and power users. These utilities integrate with system services like search for quick app launching and file access.

System services and utilities

macOS provides a suite of background system services and utilities that handle indexing, backups, updates, networking, and cloud synchronization, enabling seamless maintenance and connectivity without user intervention. Apple Intelligence extends to system services, providing AI-powered notifications, enhancements, and cross-app understanding for more intelligent workflows. , introduced in Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger in , is a technology that indexes files, emails, contacts, and other content for instant retrieval based on and full-text searches. It integrates directly into the operating system and applications like Finder and , updating indexes in real-time as files change. supports queries, allowing users to enter conversational searches that yield relevant suggestions from local content, apps, and the web. Time Machine, debuted in Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard in 2007, automates backups by creating an up-to-date copy of all system data to external drives or network storage with a simple setup. It employs incremental snapshots, preserving previous versions of files via efficient storage mechanisms like hard links, enabling users to restore items from any point in time using a timeline interface powered by Spotlight. The Software Update mechanism, enhanced with the introduction of the in Mac OS X 10.7 in 2011, delivers system and app updates over the internet. It supports delta updates, which transmit only changes from prior versions to reduce download sizes and bandwidth usage. For networking, implements zero-configuration discovery, automatically detecting and connecting to devices and services on local IP networks without manual setup. , launched in in 2011, builds on this by establishing wireless connections between nearby Macs for secure via drag-and-drop in Finder. iCloud integration, starting with Lion in 2011, offers 5 GB of free for syncing documents, contacts, calendars, , and across Macs, devices, and PCs. It uses to push changes wirelessly in real-time, with options to purchase additional storage, and excludes purchased media from the quota. Built-in applications like and leverage these services for automatic data synchronization.

Accessibility and internationalization

macOS provides a range of built-in accessibility features designed to support users with visual, motor, hearing, and speech impairments, ensuring broader usability across diverse needs. , introduced in 2005 with Mac OS X 10.4 , serves as the primary , enabling navigation and interaction through spoken descriptions of on-screen elements via keyboard commands, trackpad gestures, or connected displays. A key component is the VoiceOver rotor, a virtual dial activated by gestures or shortcuts like VO-Command-Left/Right Arrow, which allows quick selection of navigation modes such as headings, links, or tables, facilitating efficient browsing in apps and web content. For visual impairments, the Zoom feature magnifies portions or the entire screen, with options for full-screen, split-screen, or picture-in-picture views, and supports independent zooming on multiple displays. Mobility adaptations include Switch Control, introduced in macOS 10.9 Mavericks in , which scans interface elements for selection using adaptive switches, joysticks, or keyboard keys to accommodate limited dexterity. Dictation, available since macOS 10.8 Mountain Lion in 2012, converts spoken words to text in real-time across apps, supporting voice commands for , formatting, and to reduce reliance on physical input. Hearing accessibility is enhanced through closed captions in media players like and , which display subtitles for videos when available, with customizable styles for font, size, and background. Live Captions, introduced in in 2022, provides on-device real-time transcription of spoken audio from videos, calls, or conversations in the Live Captions window, supporting multiple speakers and pausing as needed. Internationalization in macOS ensures global accessibility by supporting over 100 languages for input methods, allowing users to type in scripts like , Hebrew, , , and using appropriate and . The system localizes elements, including menus, dialogs, and notifications, into dozens of languages, with automatic right-to-left text rendering for bidirectional scripts such as and Hebrew. layouts are customizable with over 50 variants, enabling seamless switching between languages via the input menu, and input sources adapt to complex character systems without altering core functionality.

Release history

Mac OS X Public Beta

The , codenamed "Kodiak," was released on September 13, 2000, as Apple's first publicly available preview of its next-generation operating system, sold for US$29.95 through retail channels and online. By early , Apple reported shipping more than 100,000 copies of the beta, which was available for and served as a tool for gathering user feedback ahead of the full launch. Built on the open-source , it marked a significant shift from the by introducing protected memory and preemptive multitasking while maintaining compatibility with legacy applications through the included environment. This beta provided the first widespread demonstration of key interface elements that would define Mac OS X, including the Aqua graphical user interface with its translucent, pinstriped windows and brushed metal textures, the dynamic for quick access to applications and files, and an updated 2 search tool capable of querying both local content and the web. It also bundled developer tools such as Project Builder, an that served as the precursor to , allowing programmers to build applications using the new Cocoa and Carbon frameworks. Hardware support was targeted at Macintosh computers with PowerPC or processors, requiring at least 128 of RAM and an ATI Rage 128 or better for optimal Aqua rendering. Despite its innovative design, the Public Beta faced criticism for instability, including frequent application crashes, UI freezes, and performance bottlenecks that made it unsuitable for everyday use without backups. Reviewers noted its "flaky" behavior and advised casual users to wait for the stable release, though it was praised for the visual appeal of , which was seen as a refreshing and intuitive evolution that revitalized the Macintosh platform's image. These early impressions helped Apple refine the system, contributing to over 20,000 feedback submissions that informed subsequent development.

Mac OS X 10.0 Cheetah

Mac OS X 10.0, codenamed Cheetah, represented the inaugural stable release of Apple's Unix-based operating system, launching on March 24, 2001. This version built upon the earlier Public Beta by delivering a production-ready platform centered on the Darwin kernel, emphasizing stability through preemptive multitasking and protected memory. It targeted PowerPC G3 and G4 processors, with official system requirements including at least 128 MB of RAM and 1.5 GB of available hard drive space. Cheetah marked a pivotal shift, establishing Mac OS X as the default boot environment and phasing out direct booting to the legacy Mac OS 9 as the primary mode, though OS 9 remained available via the new Classic application environment for running compatible legacy software. A key compatibility feature in Cheetah was the Classic environment, which emulated a Mac OS 9.1 system folder within OS X to support older applications lacking native Carbon or ports. This virtualized setup allowed seamless of Classic apps alongside native OS X programs, though it required additional installation from an OS 9 CD and consumed significant resources. Cheetah also debuted several built-in applications and services, including the for managing contacts with vCard support, iTools for cloud-based and as an early precursor to , and for hardware-accelerated DVD playback on compatible s. These tools provided foundational productivity and media capabilities, with iTools offering 20 MB of free online disk space tied to Apple IDs. Despite its innovations, faced criticism for performance shortcomings, including high CPU usage during routine tasks and sluggish multitasking that often exceeded the capabilities of contemporary hardware. Reviews highlighted mixed , praising the robust Unix for crash resistance but noting frequent , incomplete driver support, and an overall unpolished experience that made it unsuitable for mission-critical workflows. For instance, application launches could take over 30 seconds, and the system occasionally froze under load, leading to perceptions of it as a promising but immature product requiring rapid updates. These issues underscored the challenges of transitioning from the cooperative multitasking of to a more secure, but resource-intensive, OS X architecture.

Mac OS X 10.1 Puma

Mac OS X 10.1, codenamed , was released on September 25, 2001, serving as the first major update to and marking a significant step in refining Apple's new operating system. Offered as a free upgrade to users of the previous version via CDs distributed at Apple retail locations and events, it addressed many stability issues from , such as frequent crashes and sluggish performance, while introducing optimizations that made the OS more practical for everyday use. Priced at $129 for new installations, emphasized incremental enhancements over radical changes, focusing on reliability and efficiency to build user confidence in the Aqua interface and underlying foundation. Performance improvements were a core focus, with notable speed gains in application launching—such as iTunes opening in one bounce instead of eight—and more responsive menus, bringing responsiveness closer to that of Mac OS 9 on comparable hardware like PowerPC G3 and G4 systems. Quartz rendering saw enhancements through better window buffering, resulting in smoother visual transitions and reduced artifacts during window operations, though this increased memory demands for graphics-intensive tasks. The Finder received usability upgrades, including direct CD and DVD burning from the desktop, which simplified media creation without needing third-party tools, and support for DVD playback on AGP-equipped Macs for fluid video reproduction. Networking and file sharing capabilities were bolstered with native client support, allowing seamless connections to Windows servers via the "Connect to Server" dialog using smb:// URLs, alongside integration for iDisk access. remained modest, mandating at least 128 MB of (with 256 MB recommended for optimal performance) and compatible PowerPC-based hardware like iMacs, PowerBooks, and Power Macs, enabling broader adoption without necessitating hardware upgrades. Overall, was lauded for transforming Mac OS X from a promising but buggy debut into a viable daily driver, setting the stage for future innovations while prioritizing speed and stability.

Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar

Mac OS X 10.2 , released on August 24, 2002, marked a significant evolution in Apple's operating system, building on the performance enhancements of its predecessor, Mac OS X 10.1 , to emphasize improved multitasking, networking capabilities, and refinements. Priced at $129, Jaguar introduced over 150 new features, focusing on seamless and productivity tools that catered to both home users and professionals. It required a minimum of 128 MB of , though 256 MB was recommended for optimal performance, and supported a range of hardware including , , , , , and models from post-May 1998. A key highlight was the enhanced application, which became a system-wide utility supporting integration, Bluetooth device syncing via iSync, and quick search functionality for efficient contact management. Jaguar also debuted , an AIM-compatible client that facilitated text-based communication, with audio and video capabilities added later through iChat AV updates in 2003. Central to its connectivity focus was , a technology (later renamed ) that enabled automatic discovery and sharing of services across Ethernet, , FireWire, USB, and Bluetooth connections without manual setup. The Finder received notable improvements, including faster file searching integrated directly into the interface and enhanced spring-loaded folders for drag-and-drop operations, alongside support for column view to streamline navigation through hierarchical folder structures. Graphics performance advanced with the introduction of Quartz Extreme, which offloaded and rendering tasks to compatible graphics hardware—such as 2/3/4 or ATI cards with at least 16 MB VRAM—enabling smoother window animations and 3D effects across applications. These updates contributed to Jaguar's reputation for balancing stability with innovative features, solidifying Mac OS X as a mature platform for creative workflows.

Mac OS X 10.3 Panther

Mac OS X 10.3 Panther, the fourth major release of Apple's operating system, was announced on October 8, 2003, and became available starting October 24, 2003, through Apple's retail stores and authorized resellers. Priced at $129 for upgrades from previous versions, Panther emphasized enhancements in usability, security, and performance, building on the foundation of with over 150 new features. It required a , built-in USB, at least 128 of (with 512 recommended for optimal performance), and 1.5 of available disk space. A standout introduction was Exposé, a window management tool that allowed users to instantly view and switch between all open windows by pressing a dedicated key (default F9), spreading them across the screen for easy selection, or hiding them to reveal the desktop (F11). This feature addressed common multitasking frustrations in graphical user interfaces. Panther also debuted FileVault, an on-the-fly system using 128-bit to protect the contents of a user's , ensuring data privacy even if the computer was lost or stolen. Additionally, Fast User Switching enabled seamless transitions between multiple user accounts without logging out or quitting applications, displaying a menu in the for quick access. Panther marked the first time became the default , replacing Microsoft Internet Explorer, with its fast rendering based on the engine and integration into the Aqua interface. The update improved by adding native support for right-to-left languages like and Hebrew, including bi-directional text handling and compatibility with Windows-originating Arabic fonts. Search capabilities advanced with Sherlock 3, an enhanced tool for local file and internet queries that served as a precursor to later features, offering faster indexing and channel-based results. received upgrades for 64-bit floating-point processing, enabling higher precision in audio applications, particularly beneficial on the new PowerPC G5 hardware. Overall, prioritized security and stability through features like and a unified preference pane, while refining the Finder with a brushed metal , customizable sidebar, and accelerated file searching up to six times faster than . These improvements made it a more robust platform for creative and everyday use, setting the stage for subsequent releases.

Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger

Mac OS X 10.4 , released on April 29, 2005, introduced over 200 new features aimed at enhancing user productivity and system efficiency. Priced at $129 for a single-user , it built upon the foundation of previous versions like Panther's Exposé window management while focusing on innovative search and automation tools. Tiger's core advancements included , a revolutionary technology that enabled instant querying of files, emails, contacts, and across the system, significantly reducing time spent locating information. Complementing this, the provided a layer of customizable widgets—small, on-demand mini-applications for tasks like checking weather, stocks, or calendars—accessible via a single key press, with 14 built-in options at launch. Automation received a major boost with Automator, a visual workflow tool that allowed users to create drag-and-drop actions for repetitive tasks, such as batch-processing photos or generating reports, without writing code. Accessibility improvements featured , an integrated that provided audio descriptions of on-screen elements, supporting blind or low-vision users through gesture-based navigation on compatible hardware. Multimedia capabilities advanced with 7, which incorporated H.264 support for higher-quality compression and playback, enabling smoother streaming and editing of high-definition content. Additionally, Core Image leveraged GPU acceleration for real-time visual effects in applications, powering dynamic filters and transitions in tools like Preview and . For developers, Xcode 2.0 offered enhanced tools including visual modeling, an integrated reference library, and graphical remote debugging, streamlining Cocoa app creation and testing. Tiger marked the final major release optimized solely for PowerPC architecture, supporting G3 processors (with built-in FireWire and at least 300 MHz speed), G4, and G5 systems, with a minimum of 256 MB RAM and a DVD drive for installation (though a CD version was available). Contemporary reviews highlighted these changes for substantial productivity gains, noting improved interface responsiveness, faster search times via Spotlight, and overall system speed even on older hardware, making Tiger a benchmark for efficient daily computing.

Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard

Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard, released on October 26, 2007, served as the successor to Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger and represented a major update with over 300 new features designed to enhance user productivity and system efficiency. This version introduced Time Machine, an automated backup system that continuously saves user data to external drives or Time Capsule devices, allowing seamless restoration of files through a timeline-based interface integrated with Spotlight search. Spaces provided virtual desktops for organizing applications into separate workspaces, enabling quick switching via keyboard shortcuts or mouse gestures to manage multitasking more effectively. Quick Look offered instant previews of documents, images, and media files directly in the Finder without launching full applications, streamlining file browsing and review. Leopard also revamped the user interface with Stacks in the , a feature that organizes folders and downloads into expandable, fan-out views to reduce desktop clutter and improve navigation. In iCal, group scheduling was added via support for the protocol, facilitating shared calendars and coordinated event planning among multiple users. Building briefly on enhancements to introduced in , Leopard expanded search capabilities with richer metadata integration and faster indexing across the system. Technically, Leopard was the first Mac OS X release distributed as a universal binary installer, natively supporting both and PowerPC processors, which simplified deployment during Apple's ongoing transition to . It remained compatible with PowerPC G5 systems, making it the final version to officially that architecture before Snow Leopard's Intel-only requirement. Additionally, Leopard included for emulating PowerPC applications on Macs, marking the conclusion of active development on this translation layer as the Intel shift matured.

Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard

Mac OS X 10.6 , released on August 28, 2009, represented a refinement of its predecessor, Mac OS X 10.5 , with a primary emphasis on enhancing system stability and performance. This version marked the complete discontinuation of support for PowerPC processors, requiring an Intel-based Mac for installation and operation, thereby streamlining the operating system by eliminating legacy architecture compatibility. Snow Leopard was positioned as an evolutionary update rather than a revolutionary one, available as a $29 for Leopard users, reflecting Apple's focus on under-the-hood optimizations over visible changes. A key architectural advancement in was the introduction of Grand Central Dispatch (GCD), a system-level library that simplified concurrent programming by distributing tasks across multiple processor cores, improving application responsiveness and efficiency on multi-core systems. Complementing GCD, (Open Computing Language) was integrated to harness the GPU for general-purpose computing tasks beyond graphics rendering, enabling developers to accelerate compute-intensive operations like and scientific simulations. These technologies laid foundational improvements for parallelism, allowing applications to better utilize hardware resources without requiring extensive code rewrites. The Finder was redesigned in , resulting in a more responsive interface with enhanced support for , including seamless integration for SD cards, and native compatibility with Microsoft Exchange for calendar and contact synchronization across system apps. introduced the first default 64-bit kernel, with core system applications such as Finder, , , and rewritten to leverage 64-bit addressing for improved memory management and security features like (ASLR). The overall system footprint was significantly reduced to approximately half that of , freeing up to 6 GB of disk space through optimizations like removing unused code and localizations, which contributed to faster and times. While received praise for its enhanced performance, stability, and efficiency—often described as the most reliable iteration of Mac OS X at the time—it faced for the absence of prominent new user-facing features, with Apple itself it as having "zero new features" to underscore its refinement-oriented approach. This focus on backend improvements, however, solidified its reputation among users and developers for providing a solid foundation that boosted battery life and application speed on compatible hardware.

OS X 10.7 Lion

OS X 10.7 was released on July 20, 2011, and distributed exclusively through the as a $29.99 upgrade for users running Mac OS X 10.6.6 or later. This release emphasized a convergence of desktop and mobile experiences by incorporating over 250 new features inspired by , aiming to streamline workflows and enhance intuitiveness for Mac users. Among the standout additions were Launchpad, a full-screen application launcher displaying icons in a grid layout reminiscent of home screens, complete with support for organizing apps into folders and paginated navigation. Mission Control provided an at-a-glance overview by unifying Exposé, full-screen applications, widgets, and virtual desktops (Spaces) into a single dynamic interface, accessible via gestures for quick switching. Auto Save automatically preserved document changes in real time without user intervention, while the related Resume feature restored open applications and their exact states—including window positions and unsaved edits—after a system restart or crash. Lion expanded multi-touch gesture support across the system, introducing fluid interactions like three-finger swipes to navigate Mission Control or switch full-screen apps, and four-finger gestures for Exposé views, building on hardware capabilities from recent MacBooks and the . debuted as a simple wireless file-sharing mechanism, enabling direct transfers between nearby compatible Macs without needing a shared network. These iOS-inspired elements marked the initial phase of blending mobile and desktop paradigms, laying groundwork for later experiments in cross-platform app compatibility. Hardware requirements for Lion included an Duo, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, or processor, along with at least 2 GB of RAM and 7 GB of storage space. The operating system discontinued , Apple's software that had enabled Macs to run legacy PowerPC applications since 2006, reflecting a full transition to 64-bit architecture established in .

OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion

OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion, the ninth major release of Apple's operating system for Macintosh computers, was announced on February 16, 2012, and became available for purchase and download via the Mac App Store on July 25, 2012, priced at $19.99. This version marked the first official use of the shortened "OS X" branding, dropping the "Mac" prefix to align more closely with iOS 6's design philosophy and ecosystem integration, while introducing over 200 new features that further converged desktop and mobile experiences. A key addition was , a centralized hub that pulled alerts from apps, , calendars, and into a swipeable sidebar, similar to , allowing users to manage and respond to notifications without interrupting workflows. , previously iOS-exclusive, debuted on the to enable multiplayer , achievements, leaderboards, and friend matching across devices. The Messages app replaced , integrating for seamless text, photo, and video exchanges between Mac and iOS users over or cellular, with support for group chats and audio/video calls. iCloud enhancements included automatic syncing of the new Notes app across Mac, iPhone, and iPad, allowing users to organize, search, and share notes in real time without manual uploads. enabled background tasks like fetching, updates, and backups during , keeping devices current without fully waking them and preserving battery life on portables. Mirroring extended wireless display capabilities, allowing full screen mirroring to an for presentations or media viewing. Mountain Lion no longer included a Java runtime environment by default, requiring users to download it separately from for Java-dependent apps, a continued from the prior version to enhance security. It supported Intel-based Macs from mid-2007 onward, including iMac (Mid 2007 or later), (Aluminum Late 2008 or later), (Late 2008 or later), (Late 2007 or later), (Early 2009 or later), (Early 2008 or later), and (Early 2009), with minimum requirements of 2 GB RAM and 8 GB free storage space.

OS X 10.9 Mavericks

OS X 10.9 was released on October 22, 2013, as Apple's first major operating system update provided free to all eligible users via the . This release emphasized enhancements in efficiency and usability, building on prior integrations like from Mountain Lion while introducing over 200 new features focused on battery optimization and productivity tools. Key introductions included Tags in the Finder, allowing users to assign color-coded labels and keywords to files for easier organization and search across connected volumes and Drive. The iBooks app debuted on the , enabling access to over 1.8 million e-book titles with seamless syncing of purchases, notes, and highlights across Apple devices. received updates including Shared Links, a feature that aggregates and displays content shared by followed contacts on and directly within the browser's sidebar for streamlined social discovery. Mavericks prioritized power efficiency through core technologies like Compressed Memory, which dynamically compresses inactive memory pages in to reduce to disk and improve overall system responsiveness. Timer Coalescing further enhanced battery life by synchronizing multiple application timers to consolidate CPU wake-ups, extending idle periods and minimizing during low-activity states. These optimizations delivered up to one additional hour of battery life for web browsing on devices like the mid-2012 , representing a significant gain in portability without hardware changes. Support for multiple displays saw notable improvements, with the and now appearing natively on each connected screen, allowing independent access to system elements across setups. Mission Control spaces and full-screen applications could operate separately per display, and mirroring extended to for using HDTVs as secondary screens, catering to power users with extended workflows. The release fully discontinued support for processors, requiring Intel-based Macs from mid-2007 or later, such as (Mid 2007 or newer) and (Early 2008 or newer), to ensure with the updated and features.

OS X 10.10 Yosemite

OS X 10.10 Yosemite, released on , , as a free upgrade via the , marked a significant visual overhaul for Apple's operating system, continuing the free distribution model introduced with the previous version, OS X Mavericks. Named after in , it initiated Apple's tradition of drawing OS X version names from California landmarks and natural features, shifting from the prior big cat theme. This release emphasized a modern aesthetic to align more closely with iOS 7's design language, supporting Macs introduced in 2009 or later while requiring models from 2012 or newer for advanced integration features. The redesign introduced a flat , eliminating skeuomorphic elements like glossy textures and shadows in favor of simpler, cleaner interfaces. Key changes included translucent elements in windows, toolbars, and the screen to create depth through vibrancy and , alongside streamlined toolbars that prioritized content visibility. The Dock was revamped to a flatter, more minimalist style with reduced gloss and improved spacing, enhancing readability with an updated system font, . App icons adopted a consistent, simplified look to match the overall refined appearance. Yosemite previewed Continuity, enabling seamless task handoff between Mac and iOS devices, such as starting an email on iPhone and continuing on Mac via Handoff, available on 2012 or later Mac models paired with iOS 8.1 devices. The Mail app gained Mail Drop, allowing attachments up to 5 GB shared via iCloud without leaving the application. Safari received updates including a streamlined toolbar with integrated favorites and tabs views, enhanced privacy through Private Browsing and DuckDuckGo search integration, and performance boosts making it up to six times faster than Firefox. In April 2015, Yosemite update 10.10.3 introduced the Photos app as the unified replacement for iPhoto and Aperture, consolidating libraries and editing tools into a single, iCloud-synced application.

OS X 10.11 El Capitan

OS X 10.11 , released on September 30, 2015, as a free update through the , emphasized performance and stability enhancements over major interface overhauls, building on the design foundation established in the previous version. Apple described it as a refinement of the , with system-wide optimizations that improved app launch times and overall responsiveness without altering the core visual aesthetic. A key under-the-hood improvement was the integration of Metal, Apple's graphics and compute API, which accelerated applications across the system, including Core Animation and Core Graphics, delivering up to 50% faster rendering, 40% greater efficiency, and 10 times the draw call performance for games and professional apps. This enabled developers to create Metal-accelerated apps that leveraged hardware more effectively, enhancing graphics-intensive tasks without requiring hardware upgrades. Split View multitasking was introduced to allow users to run two apps side-by-side in full-screen mode, improving productivity by automatically resizing windows and hiding distractions like the . Spotlight received significant upgrades, incorporating for more intuitive searches and providing proactive web-based suggestions such as weather forecasts, stock prices, and sports scores directly in a resizable . The Notes app was enhanced with support for drag-and-drop attachments, searchable text within PDFs and images, checklists for , and a dedicated browser for organizing files. Maps added public transit information for select cities, displaying subway, bus, train, and ferry routes to facilitate trip planning. El Capitan introduced (), a feature that restricts even the root user from modifying critical system files and directories, such as /System, /usr, and pre-installed apps, to prevent from compromising the OS. This "rootless" expansion bolstered system integrity by allowing modifications only from Apple-signed processes with specific entitlements. Compatibility extended to all Macs from 2009 onward, plus select 2007 and 2008 models like the Late 2008 Aluminum and Early 2008 , marking it as the final OS X version to certain 2008 hardware.

macOS 10.12 Sierra

macOS 10.12 Sierra, released on September 20, 2016, marked the first release under the rebranded name macOS, transitioning from the previous OS X nomenclature to align with Apple's other operating systems like and . This version built upon the Metal graphics framework introduced in the prior release, emphasizing deeper integration across Apple's ecosystem, particularly with , to enable seamless cross-device functionality. Available as a free upgrade via the , Sierra introduced significant enhancements in productivity and features, while dropping the default Java runtime, requiring users to install it separately for legacy applications. A major highlight was the introduction of Siri to the Mac platform, allowing voice-activated assistance for tasks such as sending messages, searching files, adjusting system settings, and integrating with apps via drag-and-drop or pinning results. Auto Unlock complemented this by enabling users to automatically log in to their Mac using an authenticated , streamlining access without entering passwords. These features required compatible hardware and or 3 on paired devices, underscoring Sierra's role in fostering a unified . Universal Clipboard allowed copying content like text, images, or videos on one Apple device and pasting it on another via , enhancing workflow across , , and . Optimized automatically managed disk space by offloading unused files to , removing duplicates, and clearing caches, with users able to enable it to free up local storage without losing access. iCloud Desktop and Documents sync extended this by making files from these folders available across all signed-in devices, including and web access on PCs. Picture-in-Picture video support enabled floating, resizable video windows from or that remained on top of other apps, facilitating multitasking such as watching content while working. Sierra supported Macs from 2012 onward, including (Early 2015 or newer), and (2012 or newer), and (2012 or newer), and (Late 2013 or newer), ensuring broad compatibility while prioritizing recent hardware for full feature access.

macOS 10.13 High Sierra

macOS 10.13 High Sierra, released on September 25, 2017, as a free update via the , represented a focus on performance enhancements and foundational technologies rather than major changes. Building on the storage optimizations introduced in , High Sierra prioritized backend improvements to support emerging hardware capabilities and workflows. It was the first macOS version to default to the (APFS) on all-flash storage devices like SSDs, providing enhanced performance, built-in encryption, and better reliability for modern storage technologies. A key advancement was Metal 2, an updated graphics and compute API that improved efficiency for developers working on (VR) content and applications. Metal 2 enabled faster rendering and supported external GPUs connected via Thunderbolt 3, facilitating more powerful graphics workflows on compatible Macs. Additionally, High Sierra introduced hardware-accelerated support for High-Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC), allowing for video editing and playback with file sizes up to 40% smaller than previous formats like H.264, particularly benefiting users on and models. The update also included a new VR framework integrated with Metal 2, enabling tools from developers such as and to create immersive experiences on Mac hardware. The Photos app received a significant redesign, featuring an always-on sidebar for better organization, advanced editing tools like Curves and Selective Color, and enhanced Live Photos effects such as and . Memories, the automated slideshow feature, expanded with new themes for topics including pets, kids, and outdoor activities, making it easier to curate and share personal highlights from photo libraries. High was the last macOS version to support Macs from late 2009, including models like the (Late 2009), iMac (Late 2009), and (Mid 2010), ensuring compatibility for older hardware while paving the way for future optimizations.

macOS 10.14 Mojave

macOS 10.14, codenamed Mojave, was announced by Apple on June 4, 2018, at the and released to the public on September 24, 2018, as a free update. This version continued Apple's tradition of naming major macOS releases after California landmarks, drawing its name from the in the . Mojave introduced several enhancements aimed at improving productivity and aesthetics, building on the Metal graphics framework from the previous release. A key feature was Dark Mode, which applies a dark color scheme across the desktop and built-in applications, reducing eye strain in low-light environments by inverting light backgrounds to dark ones while preserving content visibility. Complementing this, Dynamic Desktop offered time-based wallpapers that automatically shift appearance from day to night, syncing with the system's light and dark modes for a more immersive experience. Desktop organization was streamlined with Stacks, which automatically groups files into categorized stacks based on type, date, or tags, decluttering the workspace with a single click to expand. Continuity Camera extended Apple's ecosystem integration by allowing users to capture photos or scan documents using a nearby iPhone or iPad, with the content instantly appearing in Mac applications like Notes or Pages. Communication tools saw updates with Group , enabling audio or video calls with up to 32 participants in a shared grid view, fostering collaborative interactions. The Finder received a Gallery View option, presenting files as large previews in a scrollable for quick visual browsing, particularly useful for media and documents. Mojave marked the final macOS version compatible with mid-2012 Mac models, including the , , , , , and , as well as select 2010 and 2012 configurations, requiring at least 2 GB of and 12.5 GB of free . It also served as the last release to fully support 32-bit applications, issuing warnings to users about impending in future versions to encourage transitions to 64-bit software.

macOS 10.15 Catalina

macOS 10.15 , the sixteenth major release of macOS, was announced at the on June 3, 2019, and made available as a free update on October 7, 2019. It introduced significant changes to the by replacing the application with three dedicated entertainment apps: for music streaming and library management, for video content including Apple TV+ originals, and for audio shows. This update also marked the end of support for 32-bit applications, requiring all software to be 64-bit compatible, a transition announced the previous year to modernize the platform. supported computers introduced in mid-2012 or later, emphasizing refinements and stability over Mojave through enhancements to core apps like , , , Notes, and Reminders. A key innovation was , which allows users to extend their display to a compatible , functioning as a second screen or with support for creative workflows in apps like . Accessibility received a major upgrade with Voice Control, enabling full device operation via on-device without external hardware. Apple also introduced Project Catalyst (later known as Mac Catalyst), a set of APIs allowing developers to adapt apps for with minimal code changes, bringing titles like and GoodNotes to the platform starting in fall 2019. The app was unified and enhanced to replace previous iCloud-based tracking tools, enabling secure location of lost Macs even when offline via signals from nearby Apple devices. Overall, prioritized ecosystem integration and user refinements, building on features from prior releases to improve cross-device experiences without a full visual overhaul.

macOS 11 Big Sur

macOS 11 , the seventeenth major release of Apple's macOS operating system, was announced at the on June 22, 2020, and released to the public on November 12, 2020, as a free update. It marked the first version to drop the longstanding 10.x , adopting version 11 to signify a significant architectural evolution while maintaining . Named after , the scenic coastal region along 's Highway 1, the release continued Apple's tradition of drawing names from California landmarks to evoke natural beauty and enhance thematic consistency across its operating systems. The update introduced a major visual redesign, featuring a more spacious and modern interface with refined, rounded icons, translucent UI elements, and a centered aesthetic that emphasized clarity and depth. Key additions included a customizable Control Center in the for quick access to settings like , brightness, and Do Not Disturb, alongside an updated supporting interactive notifications and widgets for at-a-glance information. These changes created a unified look across Apple's ecosystem, drawing inspiration from while optimizing for the Mac's display and input methods. Big Sur brought substantial updates to core applications, including enhanced messaging capabilities in the Messages app with features like pinned conversations, full-screen message effects, and improved group chats using Memoji and stickers. The Maps app received a complete redesign, incorporating interactive globe views, Guides for curated recommendations on dining and activities, and Look Around for street-level imagery similar to . Safari saw performance boosts, including up to 50% faster page loading compared to competitors and new privacy tools like the Privacy Report for tracking prevention. On the hardware front, Big Sur provided native support for Apple's first-generation chip, enabling optimized performance on new Mac models such as the , 13-inch , and introduced in late 2020. To ensure compatibility, it included 2, a layer that allowed Intel-based applications to run seamlessly on without modification. supported Intel-based Macs from mid-2013 onward, including (2013+), (late 2013+), and (2014+), alongside all M1-equipped devices, broadening accessibility while prioritizing modern hardware.

macOS 12 Monterey

macOS 12 Monterey, the twelfth major release of macOS, was announced at Apple's on June 7, 2021, and publicly released as a free update on October 25, 2021. It succeeded and introduced enhancements focused on productivity and cross-device integration, building on the established in the previous version. Monterey emphasized seamless workflows across Apple ecosystems, with key features like Universal Control enabling users to control multiple devices using a single keyboard, mouse, or trackpad without additional setup. A standout addition was Universal Control, which allows the cursor to move fluidly between a and up to two nearby iPads or other , supporting drag-and-drop of text, images, files, and URLs across screens. modes provided customizable notification filters tied to contexts like work, sleep, or driving, silencing distractions while syncing status across devices to inform contacts of availability. The Shortcuts app, ported from and , arrived on Mac to automate repetitive tasks through a gallery of pre-built actions and custom workflows integrable with apps and . gained SharePlay for synchronized viewing of movies, TV shows, or music in during calls, with support for third-party apps to join sessions. Quick Notes enabled instant note-taking from any app or , capturing links and context for later retrieval in the Notes app. to Mac extended streaming capabilities, allowing iPhones, iPads, or other Macs to mirror or extend displays to a compatible Mac's screen and speakers. Monterey supported a broad range of hardware, including all Macs with (M1 and later) and Intel-based models from 2015 onward, such as (Late 2015 or later), (Early 2015 or later), (Early 2015 or later), and (Late 2014 or later). This marked the end of support for the mid-2013 and earlier models, reflecting Apple's shift toward newer architectures while maintaining compatibility with the broadest Mac lineup in the operating system's history.

macOS 13 Ventura

macOS 13 Ventura, the nineteenth major release of Apple's macOS operating system for Macintosh computers, was announced on June 6, 2022, at the (WWDC) and officially released as a update on October 24, 2022. Named after Ventura, a coastal city in Ventura County, , the release continues Apple's tradition since 2013 of drawing names from California landmarks to evoke natural beauty and innovation. It emphasizes enhanced multitasking, seamless device integration, and productivity tools, building on features like Universal Control from the prior release. A key addition is Stage Manager, a new window management system that groups related apps into resizable stages on the left side of the screen, allowing users to focus on active tasks while keeping others accessible without cluttering the desktop. Continuity Camera enables iPhone and iPad users ( or later) to wirelessly employ their device as a high-quality for video calls, with features like Center Stage for automatic framing, Desk View for overhead shots, and Portrait mode for background blur. The app receives enhancements, including expanded Mail Privacy Protection to mask addresses and preload remote images in the background, preventing senders from tracking user activity such as opens. Safari introduces passkeys, a passwordless authentication method based on FIDO standards that uses biometric verification or device PINs for secure logins across apps and websites, reducing reliance on traditional passwords while improving resistance to phishing. Spotlight search is overhauled with richer results and quick actions, enabling users to perform tasks directly from the search interface—such as creating a note, playing a podcast, or resizing images—without launching the full app, alongside filters for documents, images, and web results. Ventura supports Intel-based Macs from 2017 and later models, including (2017+), (2018+), (2017+), (2017+), (2017), (2018+), (2019+), and (2022), as well as all Apple silicon Macs with chips and later. It drops support for several older models, notably the from early 2015 and early 2016, which were compatible with the previous .

macOS 14 Sonoma

macOS 14, codenamed Sonoma, was announced at Apple's on June 5, 2023, and released as a free update on September 26, 2023. It is named after Sonoma County, a renowned wine-growing region in known for its scenic landscapes and vineyards. This version introduced interactive widgets that users can place directly on the desktop for quick access to information and controls, extending functionality beyond the ; it also supports widgets from paired iPhones via , allowing seamless integration of apps like weather or calendar on the Mac desktop. A key focus of Sonoma was enhancing video conferencing capabilities, particularly for and . New effects include Presenter Overlay, which displays the user's camera feed as a window over shared screen content in apps like , , and , ensuring participants see both the presenter and the material. Additional features comprise gesture-based Reactions, such as animated emojis triggered by hand movements, and improved Center Stage for dynamic framing during calls. Safari received updates for better privacy and organization, including enhanced that automatically blocks trackers and removes history upon closing, along with Profiles for separating work and personal browsing sessions. In Preview, users can now add and manage notes directly on PDFs with improved tools, including highlights, shapes, and text additions that persist across sessions. Siri in Sonoma gained improved contextual awareness, allowing it to better understand follow-up requests based on prior interactions, such as refining search queries without repetition; it also supports activation simply by saying "Siri" on Macs when paired with (2nd generation). However, more advanced personalization features for Siri, including deeper on-screen awareness and cross-app actions, were delayed and later integrated into subsequent updates. Sonoma builds on Stage Manager from by refining window management for multitasking. Compatibility was expanded to include 2018 and later and models (with 2018+ processors), and from 2019 and 2017 respectively, from 2018, and from 2022 and 2019, and all Macs with starting from M1. This marked the end of support for the 2017 iMac, as Sonoma requires at least 2019 models for those desktops, shifting focus toward newer hardware and optimization.

macOS 15 Sequoia

macOS 15 , the twenty-first major release of Apple's macOS operating system, was announced at the (WWDC) on June 10, 2024, and became available as a free update on September 16, 2024. It follows macOS 14 Sonoma and introduces significant enhancements in productivity, continuity between devices, and on-device capabilities. The version is named after in , continuing Apple's tradition of drawing names from notable locations in the state, such as the park's famous giant trees. A centerpiece of Sequoia is the introduction of Apple Intelligence, Apple's suite of on-device features designed to enhance user productivity while prioritizing privacy through local processing and Private Cloud Compute for more complex tasks. These include Writing Tools for rewriting, proofreading, and summarizing text across apps; Image Playground for generating images from descriptions; and Genmoji for creating custom emojis. Initial availability of Apple Intelligence was planned for October 2024 but rolled out progressively starting with macOS 15.1 in late 2024, with further features arriving in subsequent updates through 2025. Sequoia expands device integration with Mirroring, allowing users to view and control their 's screen directly from the desktop via a dedicated , enabling seamless interaction with apps and notifications without picking up the phone. A new standalone Passwords consolidates management of passwords, passkeys, Wi-Fi credentials, and verification codes in one secure location, building on the system with improved sharing and auditing features. The gains Math Notes integration with the , where users can write and solve mathematical expressions in handwriting-like format, with real-time computation and graphing support powered by Apple Intelligence. System compatibility for Sequoia includes all Macs with (M1 chip and later) and select Intel-based models from 2018 onward, such as (2019 and later), (2018 and later), and (2018 and later), marking the final macOS version with broad support for older hardware. Building briefly on Siri's foundational updates from Sonoma, Sequoia refines the assistant with deeper system understanding and integration with Apple Intelligence for more contextual responses.

macOS 26 Tahoe

macOS 26 Tahoe, released on September 15, 2025, marks Apple's shift to year-based versioning following macOS 15 , adopting the name "26" to align with the 2025-2026 timeframe while introducing the final support for select late -based Macs, including the 16-inch (2019), (2019), and (Retina 5K, 27-inch, 2020). This version serves as the last major update compatible with these processors, ensuring continued software access for users not yet transitioned to , though advanced features like full Apple Intelligence integration remain optimized for M-series chips. A key highlight is the revamped search, which now incorporates for more intuitive queries, direct action execution (such as sending emails or creating reminders from search results), and a built-in history accessible via Command-4 or the Spotlight interface, allowing users to retrieve recently copied text or images with privacy controls like timed auto-deletion. Complementing this is the introduction of a dedicated Games app, a centralized hub that aggregates installed games, tracks updates, displays friends' activity, and integrates with for social and discovery features, streamlining access previously scattered across the and Launchpad. The Liquid Glass user interface represents a significant visual overhaul, featuring translucent elements for the , toolbars, and windows with customizable modes including , , tinted, and clear options to adjust levels for better and . In Apple , AutoMix—a DJ-like seamless song transition feature—gains support for streaming in the 26.1 update, enabling smooth playback across compatible devices without interruptions, previously limited to local playback. Enhancements to Shortcuts include Apple Intelligence-powered automations with automatic triggers based on time, location, or file changes, expanding on Sequoia's foundations for more proactive workflows. Live Activities now appear in the for real-time updates from apps like delivery services, integrated with Mirroring for cross-device continuity, while customization allows adding or rearranging Control Center widgets for quick access to settings like or volume. Accessibility receives updates such as Live Translation for real-time language conversion in Messages, FaceTime, and Phone calls using on-device processing, alongside broader options like enhanced voice control and color filters. Lock screen improvements include customizable clock fonts and styles, enabling users to select from various typefaces and adjust size or visibility directly in System Settings under Wallpaper options. On November 3, 2025, Apple released , which adds an opacity toggle for the Liquid Glass tinted mode to fine-tune transparency, alongside bug fixes, performance optimizations, and security patches addressing over 90 vulnerabilities.

Security

Security architecture

macOS employs a multi-layered security architecture to protect against unauthorized access, , and data breaches, integrating , , and user-space components for comprehensive defense. Key elements include enforcement, system integrity safeguards, full-disk encryption, built-in detection, and granular controls. These mechanisms operate seamlessly in the background, updating automatically to address evolving threats while maintaining user control and transparency. Gatekeeper, introduced in 2012 with , ensures that only trusted applications run on the system by verifying signatures and origins before execution. It restricts the launch of unsigned or unnotarized apps downloaded from the , prompting users with warnings if necessary, and integrates with the hardened runtime to limit code behavior. Since 2019, with the release of , has required notarization for all software distributed outside the , where Apple scans apps for known and issues a notarization ticket embedded in the code signature. This process helps prevent the distribution of malicious software by enforcing accountability and automated checks. System Integrity Protection (SIP), launched in 2015 with OS X El Capitan, restricts modifications to critical system files and processes, even for processes running as root, to prevent malware from compromising core components. SIP enforces read-only protections on directories such as /System, /bin, /sbin, and /usr, while allowing legitimate updates through signed system volumes. It blocks unauthorized kernel extensions and third-party code from altering protected areas, enhancing overall system resilience without impacting standard user workflows. Developers can temporarily disable SIP for testing low-level code but must re-enable it for production environments. FileVault provides full-disk encryption to secure , using the with a 256-bit key since its introduction in 2011 with . This feature encrypts the entire startup volume, requiring a user password or recovery key for access, and integrates with the Secure Enclave on Macs for . FileVault 2 supports institutional recovery keys for enterprise deployments and automatically encrypts new data, ensuring compliance with standards like when enabled. It operates transparently, with performance impacts minimized through on modern hardware. XProtect serves as macOS's built-in scanner, silently updating signatures to detect and block known threats by scanning executables and documents against a database of malicious patterns. Complementing XProtect, the Removal Tool (MRT) automatically remediates detected infections by quarantining or deleting affected files, with updates delivered via software updates without user intervention. Together, these tools form a proactive defense layer, checking downloads and running processes in while alerting users only when action is needed. Privacy controls in macOS are managed through the Transparency, Consent, and Control (TCC) framework, introduced in (10.9) in 2013 to require explicit user permission for apps to access sensitive resources like contacts and services, with further expansions such as camera and permissions added in (10.14) in 2018. TCC prompts users with one-time consent dialogs and maintains a persistent database of approvals, revocable via , to prevent unauthorized data access. This framework extends to features like screen recording and full disk access, ensuring apps operate within defined scopes and enhancing user without compromising functionality. These protections are enforced at the kernel level via the kernel, which provides the foundational model for macOS.

Notable vulnerabilities and responses

One of the earliest significant threats to macOS was the Flashback , discovered in 2011 but peaking in infections during 2012, which exploited a vulnerability to infect an estimated 600,000 Macs worldwide, turning them into a for data theft and remote control. In response, Apple released the Flashback Removal Tool in April 2012, a software update that detected and eliminated common variants of the from affected systems running and later, often requiring a restart for full cleanup. This incident highlighted vulnerabilities in third-party software like on macOS, prompting Apple to accelerate updates and emphasize built-in tools for mitigation. In 2016, macOS faced its first known ransomware attack with KeRanger, which spread through a compromised installer for the Transmission BitTorrent client, encrypting user files and demanding Bitcoin ransoms while attempting to target Time Machine backups. Apple swiftly responded by revoking the digital code-signing certificate abused by the malware, enabling Gatekeeper—a core macOS security feature—to automatically block the malicious installers and prevent further infections, limiting the outbreak to fewer than 7,000 systems. A more targeted threat emerged in 2021 with XCSSET, a modular malware family primarily affecting macOS developers by infecting Xcode projects to steal credentials, browser data, and cryptocurrency wallet information, often bypassing Transparency, Consent, and Control (TCC) protections through zero-day exploits. Apple addressed this by updating XProtect, its built-in malware detection system, in May 2021 (version 2147) to include signatures that identified and quarantined XCSSET variants, integrating the signatures into automatic security updates for all supported macOS versions. In 2025, XCSSET malware evolved with new variants that introduced additional modules for data exfiltration and persistence, as identified by Microsoft Threat Intelligence in September 2025. Apple responded by updating XProtect signatures to detect these variants in subsequent security updates. Despite these incidents, macOS maintains a notably low prevalence compared to other platforms, largely attributable to architectural features like mandatory app sandboxing, which confines potentially malicious code to limited system access and reduces lateral movement. However, marked a rise in and related threats, often distributed through pirated software downloads such as cracked apps from sites, with examples like EvilQuest and trojans comprising over 50% of detected macOS incidents according to security analyses. To proactively combat evolving threats, Apple launched its public Security Bounty program in , inviting researchers to report vulnerabilities with rewards scaling by severity, including up to $1 million initially for remote kernel code execution exploits without user interaction. In 2025, Apple doubled the maximum award to $2 million for sophisticated exploit chains targeting or secure enclave components, akin to those used in advanced , to incentivize discovery and patching of high-impact flaws.

Reception

Adoption and market share

macOS has maintained a steady presence in the global desktop operating system market, holding approximately 16% share as of October 2025, according to StatCounter data that combines legacy OS X listings with modern macOS versions. This positions it as the second-largest desktop OS after Windows, reflecting its appeal in premium and professional segments despite competition from free alternatives like Linux. The platform's market share has grown significantly over the years, rising from around 5-6% in 2010 to a peak of nearly 18% in 2021, largely propelled by the introduction of Apple's M1 chip, which enhanced performance and battery life, attracting users from Windows ecosystems. The installed base of active macOS devices exceeded 100 million in 2024, with estimates placing the number of global Mac users at about 100.4 million, underscoring the platform's enduring user loyalty and hardware longevity. Apple reports a high cadence among its user base, with roughly 70% of devices running macOS versions released within the past two years, as evidenced by adoption metrics showing strong uptake of recent releases such as macOS Tahoe (launched September 2025) and , with early data indicating around 20-25% adoption for Tahoe by mid-November 2025 and over 60% combined for versions from the past year. This rapid uptake is facilitated by seamless over-the-air updates and , contributing to sustained engagement. Adoption varies regionally, with macOS commanding about 25-28% of the desktop market in the United States as of March 2025, driven by strong consumer preference in and . In contrast, its share remains lower in at around 2-3%, where Windows dominates due to affordability and broader hardware compatibility in emerging markets. A key driver of macOS growth is Apple's integrated ecosystem, particularly the synergy with devices; surveys indicate that over 50% of new Mac purchasers already own an , leveraging features like and to create lock-in effects that boost cross-device adoption. macOS exhibits particular dominance in creative industries, where it powers a significant portion of professional workflows; for instance, it is the preferred platform for among 100 companies due to optimized software like and . This niche strength, combined with the transition's performance gains, has helped sustain overall market momentum despite global desktop saturation.

Critical reviews and promotions

macOS has consistently received high ratings from critics for its major releases, often averaging around 4 out of 5 stars across outlets like and The Verge, with praise centered on its stability, seamless integration with Apple's hardware and ecosystem, and user-friendly interface enhancements. For instance, and both earned 4.5/5 from for their refined features and performance optimizations, while The Verge awarded 8/10 to versions like Monterey and Ventura, highlighting their intuitive updates to core apps such as and Messages. Despite these strengths, critics have frequently pointed to notable drawbacks, including the high cost of compatible Apple required for optimal performance and the relatively smaller app compared to Windows, which limits options for certain professional and software. Reviews from ProjectManagers.net and Quora discussions emphasize how these factors can hinder accessibility and versatility, with prices often exceeding those of comparable PC systems and fewer native applications available for niche tasks. Apple's marketing strategies have played a key role in shaping macOS's reception, beginning with the iconic "Think Different" campaign launched in 1997, which positioned the platform as innovative and creative, influencing perceptions through ads featuring cultural icons and tying into macOS's evolution from Mac OS X. Annual unveilings occur at (WWDC) keynotes, where Apple showcases new features to developers and enthusiasts, building anticipation and highlighting ecosystem benefits. Promotions have further bolstered positive reviews, notably through free major upgrades starting with in 2013, a policy shift that eliminated upgrade fees and encouraged widespread adoption, as confirmed by Apple's and covered by WIRED. This approach has been credited with improving user satisfaction and review scores by lowering barriers to accessing updates. Additionally, longstanding partnerships with , dating back to the desktop publishing era, target creative professionals by optimizing macOS for tools like Photoshop and Premiere Pro, with noting the duo's historical synergy in enabling high-end workflows. The 2025 release of macOS 26 Tahoe garnered acclaim for its advancements in gaming, including Metal 4 graphics API and improved app support that enhances compatibility with titles like , earning a 4.5/5 from for these innovations. However, it faced criticism for the abrupt end of broad Mac support, marking it as the final version compatible with most Intel-based systems and prompting concerns over obsolescence, as reported by Hardware Canucks and analyses.

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