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Open fracture

An open fracture, also known as a compound fracture, is a severe bone injury in which the fractured bone or fracture hematoma is exposed to the external environment through a traumatic disruption of the overlying soft tissue and skin.^[1]^[2] This exposure distinguishes open fractures from closed fractures and significantly elevates the risk of complications, particularly infection, due to contamination from external sources.^[1] Open fractures account for approximately 30.7 cases per 100,000 persons annually, with higher incidence in young males aged 15-19 and elderly females aged 80-89, and they most commonly affect the phalanges (over 45% of cases) followed by the tibia and fibula.^[1] Open fractures typically result from high-energy trauma, such as motor vehicle collisions, falls from significant heights, or penetrating injuries like gunshot wounds, though lower-energy mechanisms can also cause them if the bone pierces the skin.^[1]^[2] Patients often present with an visible wound near the fracture site, varying in size from small punctures to large lacerations, accompanied by symptoms including pain, swelling, deformity, and potential neurovascular compromise.^[2] Diagnosis involves a thorough physical examination to assess soft tissue damage, circulation, sensation, and motor function, supplemented by imaging such as X-rays to confirm the fracture and evaluate bone fragments, with computed tomography (CT) scans used for complex cases.^[2]^[1] Classification systems are essential for guiding treatment and prognosis, with the Gustilo-Anderson system being widely used to categorize open fractures based on wound characteristics, energy of injury, and extent of soft tissue involvement.^[1] Type I involves low-energy wounds less than 1 cm with minimal contamination; Type II features moderate-energy wounds greater than 1 cm but less than 10 cm without extensive soft tissue damage; and Type III encompasses high-energy injuries with wounds over 10 cm, further subdivided into IIIA (adequate soft tissue coverage), IIIB (periosteal stripping and bone exposure requiring flap coverage), and IIIC (associated vascular injury requiring repair).^[1] This classification correlates with infection rates, ranging from 0-2% in Type I to 10-50% in Type III, underscoring the need for prompt intervention.^[1] Alternative systems, such as the Orthopaedic Trauma Association (OTA) Open Fracture Classification, focus on skin, muscle, and neurovascular injury severity for more nuanced risk assessment.^[3] Management of open fractures demands an interprofessional approach prioritizing emergency care to mitigate infection and promote healing.^[1] Initial treatment includes stabilization of the patient, tetanus prophylaxis, broad-spectrum intravenous antibiotics administered within 66 minutes of injury (reducing infection rates to near zero), and thorough wound irrigation with at least 3 liters of saline.^[1]^[2] Surgical debridement to remove debris and necrotic tissue should occur within 6-12 hours, followed by fracture stabilization via internal fixation, external fixation, or intramedullary nailing, depending on contamination level and bone stability.^[1]^[2] Recovery involves immobilization, antibiotics for 48-72 hours or longer for severe cases, physical therapy to restore function, and monitoring for complications such as osteomyelitis, nonunion, malunion, or compartment syndrome, which can prolong healing and require additional interventions.^[1]^[2] Advances in microsurgery and antibiotic regimens have improved outcomes, but timely multidisciplinary care remains critical for optimal results.^[1]

Overview

Definition

An open fracture is defined as a bone fracture in which there is a disruption of the overlying skin and soft tissues, resulting in direct communication between the fracture site or hematoma and the external environment.^[1] This exposure distinguishes open fractures from closed fractures, where the skin remains intact despite the underlying bone discontinuity, thereby preventing external contamination.^[2] The breach can occur either through the bone penetrating the skin from within or via an external wound that communicates with the fractured bone, increasing the risk of contamination by pathogens and foreign debris. Historically, open fractures were termed "compound fractures" due to the combination of bone breakage and soft tissue involvement, but the term "open" is now preferred in modern medical terminology to emphasize the key feature of environmental exposure and to avoid confusion with other compound injuries.^[4] In open fractures, the anatomical involvement typically includes not only the cortical and medullary disruption of the bone but also laceration or stripping of the surrounding periosteum, muscles, and subcutaneous tissues, which compromises the natural barrier against infection.^[1] Open fractures are commonly classified using the Gustilo-Anderson system, which grades severity based on wound characteristics and soft tissue damage: Type I involves a clean wound smaller than 1 cm with minimal soft tissue injury; Type II features a laceration greater than 1 cm without extensive soft tissue damage; and Type III encompasses high-energy injuries with extensive soft tissue disruption, further subdivided into IIIA (adequate soft tissue coverage despite damage), IIIB (significant tissue loss requiring flap coverage), and IIIC (associated vascular injury necessitating repair).^[1] This classification highlights the progressive anatomical complexity unique to open fractures compared to their closed counterparts.^[2]

Pathophysiology

Open fractures arise from traumatic events where the energy transfer exceeds the structural integrity of bone and surrounding soft tissues, leading to disruption of the skin barrier and exposure of the fracture site. High-energy impacts, such as those from motor vehicle accidents or gunshots, cause extensive tissue devitalization, including periosteal stripping and comminution of bone fragments, compared to low-energy mechanisms like simple falls that result in more localized damage.^[1]^[5] The open wound facilitates immediate bacterial contamination, drawing environmental debris, soil, and foreign material deep into the tissues via a vacuum effect generated during injury. This contamination often results in polymicrobial infections, with common pathogens including Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and gram-negative organisms like Pseudomonas aeruginosa sourced from soil or water.^[6]^[5] The disrupted soft tissue envelope eliminates natural barriers, allowing bacteria to adhere to necrotic debris and initiate infection.^[7] Following injury, the inflammatory response is triggered by the release of fracture hematoma contents, including cellular debris and damage-associated molecular patterns, which activate a cytokine cascade involving interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. This leads to widespread edema, vasodilation, and increased vascular permeability, potentially culminating in compartment syndrome due to pressure buildup within fascial boundaries.^[6]^[5] Concurrently, soft tissue and vascular disruption causes devascularization of bone ends and surrounding muscles, promoting avascular necrosis if blood supply is not restored, thereby creating an anaerobic environment conducive to bacterial proliferation.^[1]^[7] The breach in anatomical barriers heightens the risk of hematogenous spread, where bacteria from the local site disseminate systemically or to distant sites, exacerbating morbidity. If orthopedic implants are introduced during stabilization, bacteria can form biofilms—extracellular polymeric matrices that shield pathogens from host defenses and antibiotics—fostering chronic infections.^[6]^[5] This process is particularly pronounced in high-energy open fractures classified as Gustilo-Anderson type III.^[7]

Epidemiology

Incidence and prevalence

Open fractures represent approximately 3% of all fractures in developed countries.^[8] In the United States, they account for a notable portion of the annual fracture burden, with overall open fracture incidence estimated at 30.7 cases per 100,000 persons annually as of 2023.^[1] The global incidence of open long bone fractures is estimated at 11.5 cases per 100,000 person-years (based on 1998 data), with substantial regional variation ranging from 2.0 to 48.6 per 100,000, reflecting differences in trauma exposure and healthcare infrastructure.^[9] Open fractures occur more frequently in low- and middle-income countries, comprising up to 23.5% of fractures in some regions due to higher rates of road traffic accidents.^[10] Phalanges account for over 45% of open fractures, followed by the tibia and fibula.^[1] The economic burden is significant, with hospitalization costs for open fractures varying widely (e.g., up to approximately $160,000 USD for complex cases like open tibia fractures, often exceeding those for closed fractures due to extended stays, surgeries, and complications).^[11]

Risk factors

Open fractures are more likely to occur in individuals exposed to high-energy trauma mechanisms, with demographic patterns showing a pronounced predominance in males. Studies indicate that males face a 2- to 5-fold higher risk compared to females, particularly among younger adults aged 15-30 years, due to greater involvement in high-risk activities such as motor vehicle operation and sports.^[1]^[10] In contrast, elderly females exhibit elevated risk later in life, often linked to osteoporosis, which compromises bone integrity and increases susceptibility to fractures from lower-energy impacts like falls. Incidence peaks at 54.5 per 100,000 for males aged 15-19 and 53.0 per 100,000 for females aged 80-89.^[10]^[1] Patient-related factors further elevate vulnerability through underlying conditions that weaken skeletal structure or impair tissue resilience. Osteoporosis, prevalent in postmenopausal women and older adults, reduces bone mineral density and heightens fracture propensity, including open types when combined with trauma.^[10] Bone diseases such as osteogenesis imperfecta, a genetic disorder causing brittle bones, substantially increase overall fracture risk throughout life, potentially leading to open injuries in traumatic scenarios.^[12] Malnutrition, common in elderly or chronically ill populations, exacerbates bone fragility by impairing mineralization and collagen synthesis, thereby amplifying the likelihood of fractures.^[13] Comorbidities like diabetes mellitus and peripheral vascular disease contribute by promoting soft tissue vulnerability, neuropathy, and delayed healing responses, which can transform closed injuries into open ones or worsen outcomes in at-risk individuals.^[2]^[14] Environmental exposures play a critical role, particularly in settings conducive to high-impact injuries. Motor vehicle accidents account for a significant portion of open fractures, particularly affecting lower extremities.^[1] Occupational hazards in industries like construction and farming elevate risk due to machinery operation, falls from heights, and animal-related incidents; workers in these fields experience higher rates of open long-bone fractures from crush or penetrating mechanisms.^[10] In conflict zones, explosive devices and ballistic injuries dramatically increase open fracture incidence, often involving contaminated wounds and polytrauma.^[15] Behavioral elements significantly influence open fracture occurrence by heightening exposure to trauma. Alcohol and substance abuse impair coordination and judgment, leading to falls or accidents that result in open injuries; chronic use is associated with up to 20-30% of trauma-related fractures in affected populations.^[10] Non-use of protective equipment, such as helmets in motorcycling or padding in contact sports, amplifies risk during high-velocity impacts, where inadequate barriers allow bone protrusion through skin.^[1] Risk-taking behaviors, prevalent among young males, further compound these dangers in recreational or occupational contexts.^[16]

Etiology

Traumatic mechanisms

Open fractures most commonly result from high-energy trauma, where significant kinetic energy transfer exceeds the structural integrity of bone and overlying soft tissues, leading to bone displacement and skin penetration. Motor vehicle accidents account for a substantial portion of these injuries, often involving direct impact to the lower leg, such as dashboard strikes against the tibia during collisions, which produce transverse or comminuted fractures with outward protrusion of bone fragments.^[1]^[17] Falls from heights greater than 6 feet represent another prevalent high-energy mechanism, typically causing severe lower extremity fractures through axial loading and rotational forces that disrupt the bone envelope and tear the skin.^[18]^[19] Penetrating injuries constitute a distinct traumatic pathway to open fractures, involving direct violation of the skin and soft tissues by external objects, which may secondarily fracture the underlying bone. Gunshot wounds, whether from low-velocity handguns or high-velocity rifles, impart cavitation and shock wave effects that fragment bone and drive debris outward, creating irregular wounds with high contamination risk.^[1]^[17] Stabbings, by contrast, produce linear penetrating tracks from sharp implements like knives, often resulting in longitudinal fractures where the bone is sheared along the path of the blade.^[1]^[18] Crush injuries arise from compressive forces in scenarios like industrial machinery entrapment or structural collapse during earthquakes, mangling extremities and exposing fractured bone through devitalized tissue flaps heavily contaminated by environmental debris. These mechanisms frequently involve prolonged entrapment, leading to extensive soft tissue stripping and bone comminution under sustained pressure.^[1]^[20] Lower-energy trauma, such as falls in osteoporotic individuals, can also cause open fractures if the bone displaces through the skin. Among affected sites, the tibia is the most common long bone location for open fractures due to its subcutaneous anterior position, followed by the femur and forearm bones in high-energy contexts.^[1]^[21]^[22] From a biomechanical perspective, open fractures often stem from shear forces that cause lateral bone displacement through the skin, as seen in rotational trauma during falls or vehicle ejections, contrasting with direct impact mechanisms where perpendicular loading overwhelms the periosteum and epidermis, such as in crush or blunt strikes.^[1]^[18] These dynamics highlight how energy dissipation patterns—high in motor vehicle crashes and penetrating events—determine the fracture's openness by breaching the integumental barrier.^[17]^[18]

Pathological and iatrogenic causes

Open fractures can arise from pathological conditions that compromise bone integrity, leading to breaks that penetrate the skin under minimal or low-energy stress, distinguishing them from high-energy traumatic mechanisms. Metastatic cancers, such as those from breast, lung, or prostate origins, frequently weaken bone through lytic lesions, resulting in pathologic fractures where the compromised bone protrudes externally; this occurs in approximately 8-30% of patients with bone metastases. Similarly, primary bone tumors or benign lesions like enchondromas can predispose to such fractures by altering bone structure and density. Infections, particularly chronic osteomyelitis, contribute by causing bone necrosis and abscess formation; rupture of these abscesses can expose underlying fractured bone, creating an open wound while the infection further erodes structural stability.^[23]^[24]^[25] Iatrogenic open fractures stem from medical interventions that inadvertently damage weakened bone or disrupt surgical sites, often in patients with preexisting fragility. For instance, percutaneous bone biopsies in osteoporotic or tumor-affected bones carry a risk of iatrogenic fracture at the puncture site, where the procedural incision directly communicates with the fracture, rendering it open; this complication, though uncommon, underscores the need for careful technique in high-risk cases. Postoperative wound dehiscence following procedures like total hip or knee arthroplasty can expose internal hardware or fractured bone segments, effectively converting a closed site into an open fracture and heightening infection risk; such events typically manifest within days to weeks post-surgery due to poor wound healing or excessive tension.^[26]^[27]^[28] Rare pathological open fractures may occur in conditions like Paget's disease of bone, where abnormal remodeling leads to brittle, deformed bones prone to stress fractures in active individuals, such as athletes; progression to an open injury can happen if the fracture displaces through thinned overlying skin under repetitive low-energy loading. Overall, pathological and iatrogenic open fractures constitute a minority of cases—less than 5% of all open fractures—compared to traumatic origins, but their incidence rises significantly in oncology populations, where up to 8-30% of patients with bone metastases sustain pathologic fractures. These etiologies typically involve low-energy triggers on pre-weakened bone, necessitating targeted evaluation of underlying disease for management.^[29]^[24]^[23]

Clinical presentation

Signs and symptoms

Open fractures are characterized by an overlying skin wound that communicates with the underlying fractured bone, distinguishing them from closed fractures. A hallmark local sign is the exposure of the fractured bone or hematoma through the skin wound, often accompanied by a laceration or puncture wound near the fracture site that may expose the bone end.^[2] Other local manifestations include active bleeding from the wound, ecchymosis (bruising) around the injury, crepitus (a grating sensation or sound) elicited on gentle palpation due to bone fragments rubbing together, and obvious deformity such as angulation or shortening of the affected limb.^[1]^[30] Patients with open fractures typically report severe, unrelenting pain at the site of injury, which intensifies with any attempted movement or manipulation of the limb. This pain often arises immediately following the traumatic event and may be disproportionate to the apparent injury if neurovascular structures are compromised, presenting as pulselessness distal to the fracture, paresthesia, or pallor in the affected extremity.^[31]^[30] The wound appearance can vary but frequently includes pulsatile bleeding suggestive of arterial injury, as well as visible contamination with dirt, debris, or foreign material embedded in the soft tissues, heightening the risk of infection.^[2] Systemic symptoms may emerge rapidly due to significant blood loss or the overall trauma, manifesting as hypovolemic shock with tachycardia, hypotension, and altered mental status. In cases of early contamination leading to infection, patients might develop fever, though this is less common in the immediate presentation. Patient history often provides critical clues, such as a high-energy mechanism of injury (e.g., motor vehicle collision or gunshot wound) and the abrupt onset of excruciating pain post-event, which helps contextualize the severity.^[1]^[31] These signs may also signal associated injuries, such as compartment syndrome, requiring prompt recognition.^[32]

Associated injuries

Open fractures, especially those from high-energy mechanisms, often occur in conjunction with injuries to adjacent vascular, neural, and soft tissue structures, as well as systemic involvement in polytrauma scenarios. These associated injuries significantly influence prognosis and necessitate comprehensive evaluation. Vascular injuries, such as arterial lacerations, are particularly common in lower extremity open fractures and can lead to acute limb ischemia if untreated. For instance, popliteal artery damage frequently accompanies tibial fractures, with an incidence of vascular injury reported at approximately 29% in open tibial fractures and 5% of all open fractures classified as Gustilo Type IIIC due to the need for vascular repair.^[33]^[34] Nerve injuries arise from direct laceration, contusion, or traction during the traumatic event. The common peroneal nerve is vulnerable in proximal leg fractures, such as those involving the fibular head, while the radial nerve is at risk in forearm or humeral shaft fractures, with the latter being the most common peripheral nerve injury associated with bone fractures overall.^[35]00626-1/fulltext) Soft tissue injuries include compartment syndrome, characterized by intracompartmental pressures exceeding 30 mmHg or a delta pressure (diastolic blood pressure minus compartment pressure) of less than 30 mmHg, which compromises perfusion and can lead to muscle necrosis if not addressed promptly. Crush injuries may also precipitate crush syndrome, involving rhabdomyolysis from extensive muscle damage and release of myoglobin into the circulation. Open tibia fractures may carry an elevated risk for developing acute compartment syndrome in certain subtypes compared to closed fractures, though overall risk is similar.^[36]^[37]^[38] Systemic injuries are prevalent in high-energy contexts like motor vehicle collisions, where open fractures may coincide with traumatic brain injury or intra-abdominal trauma. Fat embolism syndrome, arising from marrow fat entering the bloodstream, affects 2-5% of patients with long bone fractures and manifests with respiratory distress, neurological changes, and petechiae, typically 24-72 hours post-injury.^[39]^[40] In polytrauma patients, defined by an Injury Severity Score (ISS) greater than 16, open fractures form part of multisystem injury patterns, with significant extremity trauma occurring in over 50% of such cases and open fractures accounting for about 12% of those extremity injuries.^[41]^[42]

Diagnosis

Clinical evaluation

The clinical evaluation of an open fracture begins with a focused history to guide immediate management and identify risk factors for complications. Key elements include the mechanism of injury, which is typically high-energy trauma such as motor vehicle accidents or falls from height, often resulting in an "inside-out" pattern where bone fragments puncture the skin.^[1]^[17] The exact time of injury must be ascertained, as it determines the urgency of interventions like antibiotic administration to minimize infection risk.^[1] Allergies, particularly to antibiotics such as penicillin or cephalosporins, should be documented, along with tetanus vaccination status—assess tetanus vaccination status. Administer tetanus toxoid-containing vaccine (Td or Tdap) if ≥3 prior doses and >5 years since last dose, or if <3 doses; administer tetanus immune globulin (250 units IM) in addition if <3 prior doses, unknown history, or immunocompromised (e.g., HIV).^[1]^[43]^[44] Comorbidities such as diabetes, immunosuppression, nicotine use, or psychiatric conditions like depression must be assessed, as they elevate infection rates (e.g., up to 31% with three or more risk factors).^[43]^[17] The physical examination follows Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) principles, prioritizing airway, breathing, and circulation to address life-threatening issues before focusing on the limb.^[45] Neurovascular status is critically evaluated, including distal pulses (e.g., dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial), capillary refill time, sensation in dermatomes, and motor function such as toe or ankle movement; an ankle-brachial index below 0.9 signals potential vascular injury requiring urgent assessment.^[1]^[17]^[45] Wound inspection involves gentle visualization of the external wound for size, location, contamination (e.g., dirt, fecal matter, or farmyard debris), and soft tissue involvement without probing or digital exploration to avoid introducing further contaminants.^[1]^[43]^[45] Documentation is essential and includes detailed notes on the mechanism, timing, wound characteristics (e.g., size and contamination level), and neurovascular findings, often supplemented by photographs of the injury for medicolegal and communication purposes while ensuring patient privacy.^[17]^[45] Red flags warranting immediate escalation include active arterial bleeding, exposed bone or significant tissue loss, vascular compromise (e.g., absent pulses), or altered mental status suggesting associated head or polytrauma.^[1] In the differential diagnosis, open fractures must be distinguished from closed fractures (no skin breach) or isolated soft tissue wounds without underlying bone disruption, based solely on clinical findings.^[17] Imaging may confirm the diagnosis but is not part of the initial bedside evaluation.^[43]

Imaging and laboratory assessment

Initial assessment of open fractures begins with plain radiographs, which are the primary imaging modality to confirm the presence of a fracture and evaluate its characteristics. Anteroposterior (AP) and lateral views of the affected bone, including the joints above and below the injury site, are obtained to assess the fracture line, displacement, comminution, and any associated foreign bodies or gas in soft tissues.^[17]^[2] For more complex cases, computed tomography (CT) scans provide detailed evaluation of fracture extent, particularly in intra-articular or periarticular injuries where plain radiographs may be insufficient. CT is especially useful for detecting traumatic arthrotomy or subtle bone fragmentation and is recommended in polytrauma patients as part of a whole-body trauma CT protocol.^[17]^[46] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be considered in hemodynamically stable patients to assess associated soft tissue injuries, such as ligamentous damage or occult compartment syndrome, though it is less commonly used acutely due to time constraints.^[47] Laboratory evaluation supports the assessment of infection risk, systemic inflammation, and surgical preparedness. A complete blood count (CBC) is performed to evaluate for leukocytosis indicative of infection and anemia from blood loss, with white blood cell (WBC) counts often elevated in contaminated wounds.^[48] C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) are measured as markers of inflammation, though their specificity for early infection in open fractures is limited and they are more useful for monitoring postoperative complications.^[49] Blood typing and crossmatching are essential to prepare for potential surgical intervention, particularly in high-risk Type III fractures.^[48] The Gustilo-Anderson classification system is the most widely used framework for grading open fractures based on wound characteristics, soft tissue injury, and contamination level, guiding prognosis and management; it is ideally performed in the operating room following initial debridement to fully assess damage. Type I involves a clean wound smaller than 1 cm with minimal soft tissue damage (infection rates generally <2%). Type II features a wound of 1-10 cm with moderate soft tissue injury but no extensive contamination or flaps (infection rate ≈2–5%). Type III fractures are high-energy injuries with extensive soft tissue damage; Type IIIA has adequate soft tissue coverage despite high contamination (infection rate ≈2–10%), Type IIIB involves periosteal stripping, bone exposure, and significant tissue loss requiring reconstruction (infection rate 10–30%), and Type IIIC includes vascular injury necessitating repair for limb viability (infection rate up to 25%).^[50]^[51] Infection rates vary across studies (0–50% for Type III subtypes depending on management and patient factors). This classification has notable limitations, including moderate interobserver reliability with agreement rates of 40-60% and a kappa value of 0.53, leading to variability in application and potential inconsistencies in treatment decisions.^[50]^[52] In suspected vascular compromise, particularly for Gustilo-Anderson Type IIIC fractures, CT angiography is indicated to evaluate arterial injury, offering high sensitivity for detecting occlusion, pseudoaneurysm, or active extravasation, and is preferred over conventional angiography to expedite surgical planning.^[53]^[46] The British Orthopaedic Association Standards for Trauma (BOAST) guidelines recommend incorporating CT angiography within extremity CT protocols for open fractures when vascular injury is suspected, emphasizing multidisciplinary orthoplastic care over reliance on plain radiographs alone.^[46]

Management

Initial stabilization

Initial stabilization of open fractures begins in the prehospital setting, where the primary goals are to control life-threatening hemorrhage, immobilize the injury to minimize further soft tissue and neurovascular damage, and facilitate rapid transport without delaying care. Emergency medical services personnel should apply direct pressure to bleeding sites using sterile gauze or a pressure bandage, while avoiding manipulation of the open wound to prevent increased contamination or injury.^[54]^[55] For uncontrolled arterial or massive hemorrhage, a tourniquet may be applied proximal to the wound site after direct pressure fails, with the application time documented to limit duration ideally to under 2 hours to reduce risks of ischemia.^[54]^[56] Immobilization is achieved using splints that secure the joints above and below the fracture, such as padded backslabs for upper or lower extremities, vacuum splints for irregular deformities, or traction splints for femoral or tibial shaft fractures, which help reduce pain, blood loss, and fragment motion.^[54]^[56] If feasible, prehospital administration of prophylactic antibiotics (e.g., cefazolin) is recommended for suspected open fractures to initiate coverage as early as possible, per 2024 joint guidelines from ACEP, COT, and OTA, without delaying transport.^[57] Pain management in this phase involves judicious use of opioids, such as intravenous or intranasal fentanyl at 1-2 mcg/kg, titrated to effect without compromising airway or delaying transport.^[58]^[59] Upon arrival in the emergency department, management follows Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) protocols, prioritizing the primary survey of airway, breathing, and circulation to address any immediate threats to life.^[1]^[60] Large-bore intravenous access is established promptly, with fluid resuscitation initiated using crystalloids or blood products for patients showing signs of hemorrhagic shock, such as tachycardia, hypotension, or estimated blood loss exceeding 1 liter from long bone injuries.^[1]^[54] If exsanguinating hemorrhage persists despite direct pressure, tourniquets are continued or reapplied as needed, and hemostatic agents like QuikClot Combat Gauze are recommended for junctional or non-compressible bleeding in the extremity, per 2024 orthopedic trauma guidelines emphasizing rapid control to prevent mortality.^[61]^[62] Limb immobilization is confirmed or adjusted with splinting to maintain alignment, and orthopedic consultation is obtained immediately to prepare for definitive care, while analgesic administration continues to optimize patient comfort without sedation that could mask neurological assessment.^[1]^[60]

Antibiotic and tetanus prophylaxis

Antibiotic prophylaxis is a cornerstone of open fracture management to prevent infection, with regimens tailored to the fracture type based on the Gustilo-Anderson classification. For Gustilo Type I and II open fractures, intravenous cefazolin at 2 g every 8 hours provides gram-positive coverage, primarily against Staphylococcus and Streptococcus species.^[63]^[64] In Type III fractures, which carry higher contamination risk, gentamicin is added at 5 mg/kg daily (divided or once daily dosing) for gram-negative coverage. For wounds contaminated with soil, water, or feces, piperacillin-tazobactam (3.375 g every 6 hours) may be used as an alternative broad-spectrum agent.^[63]^[65] Administration should begin within 3 hours of injury to maximize efficacy, as delays beyond this window are associated with increased infection rates. The typical duration is 48 to 72 hours after initial debridement, or 24 hours after definitive wound closure, whichever is shorter; extension beyond 72 hours is reserved for cases with established infection.^[63]^[66] Early antibiotic use has significantly reduced infection rates in open fractures compared to historical levels without prophylaxis.^[67] The 2022 American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) clinical practice guideline, which remains the most recent comprehensive update as of 2025, recommends against routine addition of vancomycin to standard regimens unless there is known MRSA colonization or high institutional prevalence, due to lack of benefit in reducing overall surgical site infections.^[68]^[69] Tetanus prophylaxis is essential given the contaminated nature of open fractures, which are considered tetanus-prone wounds. A tetanus toxoid booster (Td or Tdap) is administered if more than 5 years have elapsed since the last dose in patients with a history of at least three prior vaccinations. For unvaccinated individuals, those with fewer than three prior doses, or unknown history—particularly in severe or contaminated wounds—tetanus immune globulin (TIG) is given at 250 units intramuscularly, alongside initiation of the primary vaccination series.^[44]^[70] The CDC guidelines emphasize that TIG dosing for prophylaxis is standardized at 250 units, regardless of wound severity, while higher doses (up to 500 units) are reserved for established tetanus cases.^[44]^[71] When aminoglycosides like gentamicin are used, renal function should be monitored via serum creatinine levels and adjusted dosing to prevent nephrotoxicity, especially in patients with comorbidities or prolonged therapy.^[63]^[64]

Wound irrigation and debridement

Wound irrigation and debridement are essential initial surgical steps in managing open fractures to minimize infection risk by removing contaminants, devitalized tissue, and foreign bodies.^[17] These procedures complement systemic antibiotic prophylaxis by physically cleansing the wound bed, facilitating subsequent healing.^[72] Irrigation involves delivering copious volumes of fluid to flush out debris, with guidelines recommending 3 to 9 liters of normal saline based on Gustilo-Anderson classification: approximately 3 liters for type I, 6 liters for type II, and 9 liters for type III fractures.^[17] Low-pressure techniques, such as bulb syringe irrigation at 1 to 2 psi, are preferred to avoid embedding bacteria deeper into tissues, though pulsatile jet lavage may be used selectively for highly contaminated type III wounds.^[73] Evidence from the Fluid Lavage of Open Wounds (FLOW) trial supports saline alone over soap solutions for most cases, as additives like castile soap are reserved for gross contamination and do not improve outcomes in routine irrigation.^[73] Debridement entails the meticulous surgical excision of necrotic soft tissue, nonviable bone fragments, and foreign materials under general or regional anesthesia in the operating theater.^[17] It should be performed urgently, ideally within 6 to 12 hours of injury, though recent analyses indicate that delays up to 24 hours do not significantly increase infection rates when combined with early antibiotics.^[74] Radical initial debridement is followed by serial procedures every 48 hours until the wound appears clean and viable, with extension of the incision as needed for full exposure.^[17] Routine use of antiseptics in irrigation, such as hydrogen peroxide or povidone-iodine, is discouraged due to cytotoxicity to fibroblasts and osteoblasts, which can impair healing without providing superior bacterial clearance compared to saline.^[75] Mild soap may aid in initial gross debris removal but should be rinsed thoroughly with saline.^[17] Following irrigation and debridement, negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) has emerged as a preferred interim dressing over traditional gauze, particularly for type III fractures, as 2025 studies demonstrate reduced infection rates, faster wound closure, and better preparation for definitive coverage.^[76]^[77]

Surgical intervention

Surgical intervention for open fractures is performed following thorough wound debridement to stabilize the fracture, restore alignment, and facilitate healing, with timing typically within 6 to 24 hours of injury to minimize infection risk and optimize outcomes.^[17] In hemodynamically unstable patients, damage control orthopedics is employed, involving temporary external fixation to achieve rapid stabilization while addressing life-threatening conditions before definitive repair. Recent evidence, including a 2024 analysis, supports early fixation within 24 hours as it does not worsen outcomes compared to delayed approaches and may reduce complications in stable patients.^[78] Fracture fixation methods are selected based on Gustilo-Anderson classification severity, injury location, and soft tissue status. For Type I and II open fractures, internal fixation such as intramedullary (IM) nailing is preferred, particularly for tibial and femoral shaft fractures, as it provides stable alignment and promotes earlier mobilization.^[17] In contrast, external fixation, including ring systems like the Ilizarov frame, is indicated for Type IIIB fractures with extensive soft tissue loss, allowing for adjustment and infection monitoring before conversion to internal fixation if needed.^[79] For forearm open fractures, open reduction and internal fixation with plating is commonly used to preserve rotation and function.^[1] A 2023 meta-analysis of randomized trials demonstrated that IM nailing significantly lowers the risk of nonunion and malunion compared to external fixation in Gustilo Types I-IIIA, with union rates exceeding 90% in appropriate candidates.^[80] Soft tissue reconstruction is essential for fractures with coverage defects, particularly in Type III injuries, where local or free flap procedures provide vascularized tissue to prevent desiccation and infection. Muscle flaps, such as the gastrocnemius or latissimus dorsi, are often favored over fasciocutaneous options for their superior blood supply and ability to fill dead space, with early coverage within 72 hours associated with reduced infection rates.^[79] In Gustilo Type IIIC open fractures involving vascular injury, restoration of perfusion takes precedence, with temporary shunts or bypass grafts performed urgently—ideally within 3 to 4 hours—to salvage the limb before skeletal stabilization.^[81] Fracture fixation follows vascular repair to avoid further compromise, often using external fixation initially in polytrauma settings.^[1]

Postoperative care

Following surgical intervention for open fractures, patients require close monitoring to detect early signs of infection or complications. Daily wound inspections are essential to assess for erythema, drainage, or dehiscence, with dressings changed under sterile conditions to minimize contamination risk. Serial laboratory assessments, including C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, are recommended to monitor for postoperative infection, as elevated CRP beyond the expected postoperative peak (typically days 3-5) can indicate deep infection with high sensitivity and specificity. Routine X-rays, obtained at intervals such as 1-2 weeks postoperatively and then as needed, evaluate fracture alignment, hardware position, and signs of union or nonunion.^[17]^[82]^[83] Mobilization protocols emphasize early physiotherapy to promote recovery while protecting the surgical site. For Gustilo-Anderson Type I open fractures, weight-bearing as tolerated may begin after 48 hours, guided by surgeon assessment and stable fixation, to enhance functional outcomes without increasing complication rates. In more severe cases (Types II-III), protected weight-bearing with crutches or walkers is initiated within 24-72 hours, progressing to full mobilization as soft tissue coverage stabilizes, supported by evidence that early movement reduces stiffness and improves union rates.^[17]^[83]^[84] Nutritional optimization plays a key role in wound healing and bone repair during the postoperative period. High-protein supplements (1.2-2.0 g/kg body weight daily) are advised to support tissue regeneration and reduce infection risk, particularly in malnourished patients. Supplementation with vitamin D (800-2000 IU daily) and calcium (1000-1200 mg daily) is recommended to enhance bone mineralization and fracture healing, especially in those with deficiencies common after trauma.^[85]^[86]^[87] Follow-up care involves scheduled clinic visits to ensure progressive recovery. Initial outpatient evaluation occurs at 2 weeks postoperatively for wound review and stitch removal if applicable, followed by monthly assessments until radiographic union, with adjustments based on fracture type and healing progress. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) prophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH), such as enoxaparin 40 mg subcutaneously daily, is standard for 7-14 days or longer in high-risk cases (e.g., lower extremity fractures), reducing venous thromboembolism incidence per guideline recommendations.^[1]^[88]^[89] For severe open fractures (Gustilo-Anderson Type IIIB and IIIC), 2025 protocols emphasize a multidisciplinary team approach, integrating orthopedic surgeons with plastic surgeons for coordinated soft tissue reconstruction and long-term rehabilitation, which has been shown to lower infection rates and improve limb salvage outcomes compared to isolated orthopedic management.^[83]^[90]

Complications

Early complications

Early complications of open fractures arise within days to weeks following the injury and encompass a range of local and systemic issues that can significantly impact patient outcomes if not promptly addressed. Risks are heightened by factors such as fracture severity, contamination, and delays in treatment.^[1] Infection represents the most prevalent early complication, primarily manifesting as acute osteomyelitis due to bacterial contamination at the time of injury. Signs include fever, erythema, and purulent drainage from the wound site. Infection rates vary by Gustilo-Anderson classification: 0-2% for Type I fractures, 2-12% for Type II, and 10-50% for Type III, with severe Type III fractures carrying the highest risk owing to extensive soft tissue damage and contamination.^[91]^[1]^[14] Early administration of intravenous antibiotics, ideally within 3 hours of injury, can reduce infection rates six-fold by targeting common pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus.^[1] Compartment syndrome is another critical early concern, resulting from increased intracompartmental pressure due to swelling and hemorrhage, which can compromise neurovascular structures. It typically peaks 24-48 hours post-injury and is diagnosed when the delta pressure (diastolic blood pressure minus compartment pressure) falls below 30 mmHg, necessitating urgent fasciotomy to prevent irreversible muscle and nerve damage. This complication is particularly common in high-energy tibial fractures with significant soft tissue involvement.^[1] Wound-related issues, such as dehiscence and tissue necrosis, often stem from inadequate initial debridement or persistent contamination, leading to delayed healing and potential secondary infections. These problems are more frequent in fractures with extensive soft tissue stripping, where devitalized tissue harbors bacteria and impedes vascularity. Thorough surgical debridement within 6-12 hours of injury is essential to mitigate these risks.^[1]^[2] Systemic complications may emerge in polytrauma cases, including sepsis from unchecked local infection, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) due to inflammatory response, and acute kidney injury secondary to rhabdomyolysis from muscle trauma. These can rapidly progress to multi-organ dysfunction, with sepsis rates elevated in contaminated wounds not addressed promptly. Early stabilization and broad-spectrum antibiotics play a key role in preventing escalation to systemic involvement.^[1]

Late complications

Late complications of open fractures encompass a range of long-term issues that manifest months to years after initial treatment, often stemming from initial tissue damage, infection, or impaired healing processes. These include nonunion, malunion, chronic infections, functional deficits, and psychological sequelae, each contributing to substantial morbidity and requiring specialized interventions. Nonunion represents the failure of bone healing, typically defined as absence of radiographic union beyond six months post-injury despite appropriate management. In open fractures classified as Gustilo-Anderson Type II or III, nonunion rates range from 10% to 20%, with higher incidence in Type III injuries due to extensive soft tissue disruption and contamination. Risk factors include compromised vascularity from initial trauma, which impairs nutrient delivery and osteogenic cell function, leading to atrophic or hypertrophic nonunion patterns. Treatment often involves surgical revision, such as bone grafting or distraction osteogenesis, to promote union.^[92]^[93] Malunion occurs when the fracture heals in an improper alignment, commonly defined as angulation exceeding 10 degrees in any plane, resulting in limb deformity, altered biomechanics, and secondary joint stress. This complication is particularly prevalent in open fractures of long bones like the tibia, where initial instability or soft tissue loss hinders precise reduction. Consequences include gait abnormalities and increased osteoarthritis risk, necessitating corrective osteotomy to realign the bone, often supplemented with internal fixation and grafting for stability and healing.^[94]^[95] Chronic infection, manifesting as persistent osteomyelitis, develops in 5% to 20% of open tibia fractures and involves biofilm formation on bone or hardware, leading to recurrent drainage, pain, and sinus tracts. In severe cases, it arises from inadequate initial debridement or persistent bacterial reservoirs, particularly in Gustilo Type III injuries with vascular compromise. Management requires long-term culture-directed antibiotics, typically intravenous initially followed by oral, combined with surgical debridement and hardware removal to eradicate infected tissue and prevent recurrence.^[96]^[97] Functional complications frequently include joint stiffness, chronic pain, and in severe instances, amputation. Stiffness arises from scar tissue formation and prolonged immobilization, limiting range of motion in adjacent joints like the knee or ankle, while chronic pain stems from nerve damage or ongoing inflammation. Amputation risk stands at approximately 5% in Gustilo Type IIIB open fractures, often due to uncontrollable infection or vascular insufficiency despite salvage efforts.^[98] Psychological effects, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), affect 20% to 30% of patients with high-energy open fractures, driven by the traumatic nature of the injury and prolonged recovery. Symptoms include intrusive memories, avoidance behaviors, and hyperarousal, exacerbating functional recovery through reduced adherence to rehabilitation. Early screening and interventions like cognitive behavioral therapy are essential to mitigate long-term mental health impacts.^[99]^[100]

Prognosis

Outcome predictors

The severity of an open fracture, particularly as graded by the Gustilo-Anderson classification, strongly influences short- and long-term recovery outcomes, with higher-grade injuries correlating to elevated risks of infection and nonunion. Type I fractures, characterized by minimal soft tissue damage, exhibit low complication rates, with infection and nonunion occurring in approximately 2% of cases. In contrast, Type III fractures, involving extensive soft tissue injury, contamination, or vascular compromise, are associated with markedly higher risks, including infection and nonunion rates of 20-50%.^[14]^[51]^[101] Patient-specific factors also play a critical role in predicting successful recovery. Smoking has been demonstrated to double the risk of nonunion in open fractures, likely due to impaired vascularity and delayed bone healing processes. Similarly, evidence on the impact of age over 60 is mixed; some studies show no significant difference in healing rates between elderly and younger patients, while others indicate increased complications in the elderly due to comorbidities like reduced bone density and immune function.^[102] Timely intervention is another key determinant of prognosis; recent evidence suggests that while urgent debridement (within 12-24 hours) is recommended, delays beyond 24 hours do not consistently increase infection rates in all cases, though high-grade injuries may still benefit from prompt intervention. Prognostic scoring systems further aid in outcome prediction; for instance, the Mangled Extremity Severity Score (MESS) greater than 7 reliably indicates a high likelihood of amputation, guiding decisions on limb salvage versus primary amputation.^[103]^[104] As of 2025, emerging predictive models integrate artificial intelligence to enhance outcome forecasting by analyzing initial laboratory data, such as inflammatory markers, and imaging features like soft tissue extent, offering improved accuracy over traditional methods alone.^[105]

Long-term effects

Open fractures often result in significant long-term functional impairments, with studies indicating variable return to pre-injury physical activity levels, ranging from 40% to 70% depending on fracture severity and treatment.^[106] In cases involving the tibia, chronic limp or gait abnormalities occur in a subset of patients due to malunion, muscle weakness, or joint stiffness following surgical reconstruction, with rates varying by study (approximately 10-25%).^[107] Disability outcomes include amputation rates of 1% to 5%, particularly elevated in high-energy injuries classified under Gustilo-Anderson type III, where vascular compromise increases the risk.^[108] Chronic pain affects a substantial portion of survivors and is commonly managed with gabapentinoids, which have demonstrated efficacy in reducing neuropathic pain after orthopedic trauma without compromising overall recovery when used judiciously.^[109] Socioeconomic consequences are profound, with affected individuals typically experiencing 3 to 6 months of lost work time during recovery and rehabilitation, leading to substantial income reduction.^[11] Unemployment rates are notably higher among manual laborers, with some studies reporting up to 20-40% failing to return to pre-injury employment due to physical demands incompatible with residual impairments.^[110] Quality of life is diminished, as evidenced by SF-36 scores that are typically 15-25% lower than population norms, reflecting deficits in physical functioning, role limitations, and emotional well-being.^[111] Approximately 15% of patients require ongoing psychological support to address post-traumatic stress, anxiety, or depression stemming from the injury and its sequelae.^[112] Survival rates are generally favorable for isolated open fractures, with mortality below 1% attributable directly to the injury when managed promptly. However, in the context of polytrauma, where open fractures accompany multiple systemic injuries, mortality rises to around 10%, primarily due to associated hemorrhage, sepsis, or organ failure.^[113]

History

Early descriptions

The concept of open fractures, historically referred to as compound fractures, was first systematically described in ancient Greece around 400 BCE by Hippocrates, who differentiated them from simple fractures by the presence of an associated wound that exposed the bone to external contamination. He recommended conservative management, including manual reduction, bandaging to immobilize the limb, and splinting with wooden appliances to maintain alignment and prevent further injury, emphasizing the avoidance of aggressive manipulation in severe cases to reduce complications like excessive bleeding or tissue damage.^[114]^[115] During the Middle Ages, advancements in understanding and treating open fractures stagnated, with limited surgical innovation due to prevailing fears of infection and gangrene; as a result, immediate amputation became the standard intervention for most cases, often performed without anesthesia and carrying high risks of fatal complications. Arab physicians like Al-Zahrawi (c. 936–1013 CE) contributed some progress through descriptions of wound cleaning and splinting techniques using bandages, pastes, and wooden supports, but these were rarely sufficient to salvage limbs in contaminated injuries.^[114] In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, surgical approaches to wounds advanced, including debridement to excise devitalized tissue and foreign matter while promoting vessel ligation over cauterization to control hemorrhage; despite these efforts, mortality rates for such injuries remained high, around 40-50%, primarily due to unchecked sepsis.^[114] Key insights into the pathology of open fractures emerged during the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815), where military surgeons like Dominique Jean Larrey (1766–1842), Napoleon's chief surgeon, observed that contamination from dirt, clothing fragments, and gunpowder significantly worsened outcomes in battlefield wounds. Larrey emphasized rapid evacuation of the injured via "flying ambulances," early debridement within 24–48 hours, and prompt amputation for severely contaminated cases to limit infection spread, though overall survival rates for limb salvage remained low.^[116] The terminology evolved in the early 20th century, shifting from "compound fracture"—which could ambiguously imply multiple bone breaks—to "open fracture" to more precisely denote the critical breach in skin integrity and associated infection risk.^[117]

Modern advancements

During the early 20th century, particularly amid the challenges of World War I and II, advancements in antisepsis revolutionized open fracture management. Dakin's solution, a dilute sodium hypochlorite formulation, was introduced by military physicians in 1915 to combat infections from high-velocity artillery wounds, effectively irrigating and debriding contaminated tissues while minimizing damage to viable structures.^[118] Concurrently, H. Winnett Orr developed a comprehensive approach in the 1910s-1920s, emphasizing thorough debridement, wound packing with vaseline gauze for drainage, and immobilization using plaster casts, which significantly reduced infection rates in compound fractures by promoting closed treatment without frequent dressing changes. These techniques addressed the high morbidity from gas gangrene and osteomyelitis prevalent in wartime settings, laying groundwork for modern wound care protocols.^[119] The mid-20th century marked a pivotal shift with the advent of antibiotics, dramatically lowering infection risks in open fractures. Penicillin, mass-produced by the 1940s following its discovery in 1928, was first widely applied in World War II trauma cases, significantly reducing postoperative infection rates from high levels (often over 20-30%) in the pre-antibiotic era to under 10-15% by the 1950s through prophylactic administration alongside debridement.^[120] This era's studies, spanning 1948-1955, confirmed antibiotics' role in transforming outcomes for contaminated long-bone fractures, enabling safer internal fixation and decreasing amputation needs. In the 1970s, standardized classification systems emerged to guide treatment based on injury severity. The Gustilo-Anderson classification, introduced in 1976, categorized open fractures by wound size, contamination, soft-tissue damage, and bone involvement into types I-III, correlating these with infection risks and influencing debridement timing and antibiotic duration. This framework, derived from over 1,000 cases, underscored the prognostic importance of soft-tissue injury, becoming a cornerstone for evidence-based management.^[121] Late 20th-century innovations focused on stabilization and wound coverage. The AO Foundation, established in 1958 by Swiss surgeons, advanced external fixators from rudimentary designs to modular systems using threaded pins and bars, ideal for temporary stabilization of Gustilo type III open fractures to preserve soft tissues and allow repeated debridements.^[120] By the 1990s, vacuum-assisted closure (VAC) therapy, pioneered by Argenta and Morykwas in 1995 and applied to open fractures by Fleischmann in 1993, utilized subatmospheric pressure to promote granulation, reduce edema, and clear exudate, significantly shortening healing times (e.g., by 30-40% in some studies) in contaminated wounds compared to conventional dressings.^[122] Entering the 21st century, damage control orthopaedics (DCO) in the 2000s prioritized physiological resuscitation over definitive repair in polytrauma patients with open fractures. Coined around 2000, DCO employed rapid external fixation within the "golden hour" to stabilize long-bone injuries, deferring intramedullary nailing until metabolic stability, thereby significantly reducing secondary complications like acute lung injury in severe cases. Biologic enhancements gained traction in the 2010s, with recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) and rhBMP-7 approved by the FDA for nonunions in open tibial fractures, accelerating union rates to 80-90% versus 50-60% with autograft alone by stimulating osteogenesis through local growth factor delivery.^[123] As of 2025, trends in 3D-printed implants are transforming personalized reconstruction for complex open fractures. Patient-specific titanium implants, fabricated via additive manufacturing from CT scans, enable precise anatomic fitting for defect reconstruction, reducing operative time by 20-30% and improving osseointegration through porous lattices that mimic trabecular bone, particularly in Gustilo type IIIB/C cases with segmental loss.^[124]^[125] These advancements, integrated with biologics like BMP coatings, address persistent challenges in infection and nonunion, with ongoing trials showing 15-25% faster healing in high-energy traumas. Emerging integrations of AI for preoperative planning further enhance precision in managing open fractures as of November 2025.^[126]^[127]

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Vitamin D and calcium supplementation, in addition to antiosteoporosis treatment after surgery or conservative treatment, can ensure optimal recovery and ...
[88]
Nutritional Aspects of Bone Health and Fracture Healing - PMC - NIH
The study found that protein- and energy-rich supplementation in addition to calcium, vitamin D, and bisphosphonate therapy had additive effects on total body ...
[89]
Aspirin or Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin for Thromboprophylaxis ...
Jan 18, 2023 · Clinical guidelines recommend low-molecular-weight heparin for thromboprophylaxis in patients with fractures, but trials of its ...
[90]
American Society of Hematology 2019 guidelines for management ...
For VTE prophylaxis after surgery for hip fractures, the 2012 ACCP guideline recommends LMWH for VTE prophylaxis vs fondaparinux and low-dose UFH over ...
[91]
Role of Combined Ortho-Plastic Approaches in the Reconstruction ...
Sep 26, 2025 · This systematic review investigates the role of combined ortho-plastic approaches in the reconstruction of Gustilo-Anderson Grade III upper limb ...
[92]
Controversies in the Management of Open Fractures - PMC - NIH
For example, Type I fractures are at 0-2% risk of developing infection, Type II have a 2-12% risk, while Type III have a 10-50% risk [4, 6, 7]. Infection risk ...
[93]
Open fractures of the lower leg: Outcome and risk-factor analysis for ...
Patients with single injuries, multiple injuries with an injury severity score (ISS) <16 and polytrauma (ISS ≥ 16) were included. The exclusion criteria ...
[94]
Older Age Does Not Affect Healing Time and Functional Outcomes ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of patient age on clinical and functional outcome following long bone fracture nonunion surgery.
[95]
Delayed debridement of severe open fractures is associated with a ...
Mar 1, 2014 · This can also be described as a 3% increased risk of infection for every hour of delay. In more pragmatic terms, a delay of surgery of six hours ...
[96]
Severe open fractures of the lower extremity - PubMed
Recent reports using the Mangled Extremity Severity Score (MESS) suggest that a score of > or = 7 is 100% accurate in predicting the need for amputation.
[97]
Artificial intelligence in orthopedic trauma: a comprehensive review
217 studies on AI in orthopedic trauma published from 2015–2025 were systematically analyzed. •. Research has grown exponentially, with 52.5 % of all ...
[98]
Functional outcomes and quality of life at 1-year follow-up after an ...
Sep 1, 2023 · Adults with open tibia fractures in Malawi have poor function and quality of life in the 1 year following injury. Centralised orthopaedic ...
[99]
What Is Important to Patients Who Are Recovering From an ... - NIH
Open tibial fractures are complex high-energy injuries. Patients who sustain these injuries often suffer lasting effects, reporting a 45% reduction in quality ...
[100]
Amputation Rates in More Than 175,000 Open Tibia Fractures in the ...
Dec 2, 2020 · Amputation rates were 1.9% (n=170,887) in patients without any neurovascular injury, 20.1% (n=200) in patients with an isolated tibial nerve ...
[101]
Antineuropathic Pain Management After Orthopedic Surgery
Mar 17, 2024 · Twelve studies identified show that gabapentin treatment resulted in decreased pain and/or opioid consumption following orthopedic surgery.
[102]
The socioeconomic impact of orthopaedic trauma - NIH
Jan 15, 2020 · Data on the long-term socioeconomic impact of orthopaedic trauma is limited but suggests that 13% of fracture patients may lose employment due ...
[103]
Long-term patient-related quality of life after fracture-related ...
May 3, 2021 · With a mean follow-up of 4.19 years (SD 2.7) after the last surgery, the mean SF-36 score was 40.1 (SD 14.6) regarding the physical health ...
[104]
Psychological distress and quality of life after orthopedic trauma - NIH
A recent study of patients with severe lower limb injuries found a 42% prevalence of psychological disorder at 24-month follow-up and that only 22% of such ...
[105]
Declining mortality after open pelvis fracture in North America
Oct 13, 2025 · The present study identified an adjusted mortality of 10.8%, decreasing by 0.43% per year after 2017, which may reflect steady progress in the ...
[106]
The History of Fracture Treatment | Musculoskeletal Key
Jun 11, 2019 · Certainly, both Hippocrates and Celsus described in detail the splintage of fractures using wooden appliances, but a fascinating account of ...
[107]
The Leg Wound of King Philip II of Macedonia - PMC - NIH
Apr 18, 2018 · In 'On the Articulations', Hippocrates advises against actively reducing compound fractures involving the tibia or femur, as doing so was ...
[108]
A History of Surgery [Third edition] 9780429461743, 0429461747 ...
In France, Pierre Dionis (1643–1718) was appointed by Louis XIV in 1673 to ... compound fractures required amputation, and this procedure was often fatal.
[109]
Extremity Injury and War: A Historical Reflection - PMC - NIH
His student, the great Napoleonic military surgeon Dominique Jean Larrey ... war service would use it on open fractures, introducing contamination. Of ...
[110]
Open Fracture - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
... to be an open fracture until proved otherwise. Open fractures ... The term “compound fracture” is an older term and generally considered to be obsolete.
[111]
Dakin's solution: historical perspective and current practice - PubMed
Dakin's solution was first introduced by military physicians responding to the challenges of treating artillery injuries in World War I.Missing: open fracture Orr's plaster
[112]
WWI · Orthopedics and Beyond: The H. Winnett Orr Rare Book ...
Orr presented fracture treatments, including reduction, splinting, plaster of Paris, skeletal fixation, methods of avoiding wound infection and operative ...
[113]
Open tibial shaft fractures: a historical perspective - PMC
Jun 5, 2024 · The introduction of antibiotics further improved open fracture treatment, with multiple studies between 1948 and 1975 demonstrating decreased ...
[114]
Open tibial shaft fractures: a historical perspective - OTA International
The Gustilo–Anderson classification was first described in 1976 and was based on the sentiment that the extent of the soft tissue injury is a critical factor in ...
[115]
Vacuum-Assisted Closure: Orthopaedic Applications - SpringerLink
Vacuum-assisted wound closure (VAC) was introduced in the early 1990s by ... Vacuum sealing as treatment of soft tissue damage in open fractures [German].
[116]
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) for fracture healing in adults - PMC
Factors contributing to delayed union or nonunion can include: severe comminution (shattered or splintered bone), open fractures, association with tumour, ...
[117]
Current developments in orthopaedic implant technology - PMC - NIH
Oct 28, 2025 · 3D-printed, porous metal implants are now in regular clinical use, improving osseointegration and customization. Patient-specific titanium alloy ...
[118]
New 3D-printed implants could revolutionise bone healing
Oct 29, 2025 · In 2025 alone, the territory is expected to see more than 2900 fractures, with direct healthcare costs exceeding $73 million, a report from ...Missing: trends open
[119]
Three-dimensional printing in modern orthopedic trauma surgery
This review provides a systematic framework integrating technical principles and clinical applications of 3D printing in orthopedic trauma surgery.