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Thermal imaging camera

A thermal imaging camera, also known as an thermography camera, is a non-contact that detects emitted by objects due to their and converts it into a visible image, revealing heat patterns and distributions without the need for visible light. These cameras operate primarily in the mid- to far-, typically the 3–5 μm or 8–12 μm bands, where atmospheric is optimal, allowing for the capture of thermal emissions from objects at various s. The technology, originating from the discovery of infrared radiation in 1800, has evolved into portable systems widely used in military, industrial, medical, and surveillance applications for tasks such as detecting hotspots, energy audits, and night vision.

Fundamentals

Principle of Operation

Thermal imaging cameras detect thermal radiation emitted by objects above absolute zero temperature, relying on the principles of blackbody radiation. All objects emit infrared radiation as a function of their temperature, described by Planck's law, which quantifies the spectral radiance B(\lambda, T) of a blackbody at wavelength \lambda and temperature T: B(\lambda, T) = \frac{2hc^2}{\lambda^5} \frac{1}{e^{hc / \lambda kT} - 1} where h is Planck's constant, c is the speed of light, and k is Boltzmann's constant. This law determines the intensity and distribution of infrared wavelengths emitted, with warmer objects radiating more energy at shorter wavelengths in the infrared spectrum. The total radiated power from a blackbody surface is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law, W = \epsilon \sigma T^4, where \sigma = 5.67 \times 10^{-8} W/m²K⁴ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and \epsilon is the emissivity (typically between 0 and 1 for real objects). This equation establishes the overall emission intensity proportional to the fourth power of temperature, providing a foundational measure for quantifying thermal output in imaging applications. Infrared radiation is captured and converted into electrical signals through two primary mechanisms: photon detectors, which use the to generate charge from absorbed (e.g., in cooled arrays), and detectors, which rely on heating effects to alter material properties like resistance or voltage (e.g., in uncooled microbolometers). These signals form a two-dimensional array corresponding to the detector's pixels, where variations in reflect differences across the scene. The resulting data is processed to map these variations into a visible image, typically rendered in (with brighter pixels indicating higher temperatures) or pseudocolor schemes for enhanced and interpretation. Thermal imaging operates primarily in passive mode, detecting naturally emitted without external illumination, making it suitable for low-light or environments. In contrast, active thermal imaging employs an external source to illuminate the target, reflecting back to the camera for detection, which can improve visibility in scenarios with low natural emission but requires additional equipment.

Infrared Spectrum and Emission

The infrared portion of the extends from approximately 0.7 μm to 1 mm in wavelength, longer than visible light but shorter than microwaves. It is conventionally divided into near-infrared (, 0.7–1.4 μm), mid-infrared (, 1.4–15 μm), and far-infrared (, 15–1000 μm) regions, with further subdivisions such as short-wave infrared (SWIR, 1.4–3 μm), mid-wave infrared (MWIR, 3–8 μm), and long-wave infrared (, 8–15 μm). In thermal imaging, the LWIR band, particularly the atmospheric window from 8 to 14 μm, is primary, as it aligns with peak thermal emissions from objects at ambient temperatures and experiences relatively low by atmospheric gases. Blackbody radiation represents the ideal thermal emission from a perfect absorber, characterized by a continuous peaking at a determined by : \lambda_{\max} = \frac{b}{T}, where b \approx 2898 \, \mu \mathrm{m \cdot K} is Wien's constant and T is the absolute temperature in . This law indicates that higher temperatures shift the peak emission to shorter s; for example, room-temperature objects near 300 K emit maximally around 9.7 μm in the LWIR range, while hotter sources like industrial equipment exceed 1000 K and peak in the MWIR. The overall blackbody radiance curve, derived from , broadens and intensifies with increasing temperature, providing the theoretical basis for interpreting thermal signatures./University_Physics_III_-Optics_and_Modern_Physics(OpenStax)/06%3A_Photons_and_Matter_Waves/6.02%3A_Blackbody_Radiation) Real objects emit less than a blackbody due to \epsilon, defined as the ratio of the object's radiated to that of a blackbody at the same and , with $0 \leq \epsilon \leq 1. Emissivity varies significantly by material and surface condition; typically exhibits \epsilon \approx 0.97–0.98, approximating blackbody behavior, whereas polished metals like aluminum have low values around 0.05, reflecting much of the incident instead. The total hemispherical emissive for a gray body (constant \epsilon) follows the modified Stefan-Boltzmann law: E = \epsilon \sigma T^4, where \sigma = 5.67 \times 10^{-8} \, \mathrm{W/m^2 \cdot K^4} is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant; this equation quantifies how surface properties modulate thermal output. Emission in thermal imaging contexts is influenced by object temperatures, typically measurable from -50°C to 2000°C across camera applications, though practical limits depend on sensor calibration. Environmental factors, such as atmospheric absorption by , , and , attenuate infrared signals; the 8–14 μm window minimizes this, but high humidity can increase absorption, reducing transmission over long paths. For opaque bodies in thermal equilibrium, equates emissivity to absorptivity at each (\epsilon_\lambda = \alpha_\lambda), ensuring that good absorbers are also efficient emitters and linking the two properties fundamentally.

Components

Detectors and Sensors

Thermal imaging cameras rely on specialized detectors to capture radiation, primarily in the mid-wave (MWIR, 3-5 μm) and long-wave (LWIR, 8-14 μm) bands. These detectors are categorized into cooled and uncooled types, with cooled detectors offering higher sensitivity for demanding applications while uncooled ones provide compactness and lower cost. Cooled detectors, such as those based on (InSb) or (MCT, or HgCdTe), operate as photon detectors that require cryogenic cooling to temperatures around 77 K or lower to suppress thermal noise and enhance . In contrast, uncooled detectors, exemplified by microbolometers, function at ambient temperatures without cooling, making them suitable for portable and consumer-grade systems. Microbolometer arrays form the backbone of most uncooled thermal imaging systems, consisting of a focal plane array (FPA) where each acts as an independent sensor. These arrays typically use materials like (VOx) or (a-Si) for the thermistor layer, which exhibits a strong of resistance (TCR) to detect incident . Common FPA configurations include resolutions such as 640 × 480 s, with individual pixel pitches ranging from 6 μm to 17 μm as of 2025 to balance resolution and . Fabrication involves microelectromechanical systems () processes to suspend the sensing elements on a substrate, allowing efficient thermal isolation for improved responsiveness. The operating principles of these detectors differ fundamentally between photon and thermal types. In photon detectors like InSb and MCT, detection occurs via photovoltaic mode, where absorbed photons generate electron-hole pairs that produce a measurable current without external bias, or photoconductive mode, where incident radiation alters the material's conductivity by exciting carriers, leading to a change in resistance under applied voltage. Microbolometers, as thermal detectors, operate by absorbing photons to heat a suspended , causing or a change in electrical resistance proportional to the rise, which is then converted to a voltage signal. Sensor response times directly influence time—the duration over which the detector accumulates signal—and thus frame rates in applications. For uncooled microbolometers, time constants around 10 ms limit frame rates to 30-60 Hz for standard , ensuring smooth real-time without excessive . Cooled detectors, with faster response times (e.g., periods from 50 μs to 6 ms), can support higher frame rates in specialized systems, though practical limits often align with 30-60 Hz for most cameras. Recent advancements since 2020 have focused on integrating novel to enhance and response in thermal detectors. Colloidal quantum dots (QDs), such as (PbS) or (InAs), enable solution-processed photodetectors with tunable bandgap for extended wavelength coverage and room-temperature operation, achieving detectivities exceeding 10^12 Jones in the SWIR to MWIR range. Additionally, as of , pixel pitches have been reduced to as low as 6 μm, enabling higher FPAs in smaller packages. Similarly, graphene-based bolometers leverage the material's high thermal conductivity and broad absorption spectrum for fast response times on the order of 20 ns and responsivities up to 5 mA/W in the mid-, facilitating integration into compact FPAs for and biomedical imaging. These developments promise uncooled detectors with performance rivaling traditional cooled systems while reducing size, weight, and power consumption.

Optics and Electronics

Thermal imaging cameras employ specialized designed to transmit radiation in the long-wave (LWIR) band of 8-14 μm, where and chalcogenide glasses are primary materials due to their high transparency in this spectrum. lenses, with a of approximately 4, are commonly used for their excellent transmission from 2 to 14 μm and are often fabricated as aspheric designs to reduce spherical aberrations and improve image quality in compact systems. Chalcogenide glasses, such as those based on or (e.g., As₂Se₃), offer similar IR transparency up to 13-20 μm depending on composition and enable precision-molded aspheric lenses via at temperatures around 220°C, minimizing manufacturing costs while maintaining low aberration in the 8-14 μm band for thermal imaging applications. The electronics in thermal imaging cameras include readout integrated circuits (ROICs) that interface with the focal plane array (FPA) to and process detector signals, enabling efficient readout of large pixel arrays. ROICs typically incorporate column-parallel architectures to handle signal from thousands of pixels, reducing readout time and power consumption in FPAs. Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) integrated into ROICs provide 14-16 to capture the wide of thermal signals, with designs achieving low and high for accurate . For photon-based detectors like (MCT), cooling systems are essential to suppress thermal noise and achieve cryogenic temperatures around 77 , often using coolers that employ a closed-cycle gas expansion for reliable, vibration-free operation. Multi-stage Peltier thermoelectric coolers, leveraging the Peltier effect for solid-state heat pumping, are used in some systems to reach intermediate cooling levels (e.g., down to 200 ) without moving parts, though they are less efficient for deep cryogenic needs compared to Stirling units. Power management in thermal imaging cameras supports portable operation with battery life typically ranging from 4-8 hours, depending on resolution and processing demands, while interfaces like USB and enable data output and real-time video streaming to external displays or computers. Basic image enhancement algorithms, such as non-uniformity correction (), are implemented in the electronics to calibrate pixel response variations caused by detector drift, using a shutter mechanism to provide a uniform reference and adjust /offset for each , thereby ensuring image uniformity and accuracy. Compact designs have advanced portability, exemplified by modules like the FLIR Lepton, introduced in 2014 as the first long-wave camera small enough (10.5 x 12.7 x 7.2 mm) for integration, featuring low power consumption (150 mW typical) and resolutions up to 160x120 pixels for attachment-based thermal attachments. These electronics integrate with various FPA detector types to support overall system sensitivity without compromising the core detection performance.

Performance Characteristics

Resolution and Sensitivity

Resolution and sensitivity are fundamental performance metrics for thermal imaging cameras, determining the ability to discern fine spatial details and subtle variations in scenes. refers to the camera's capacity to resolve distinct points in the image, while thermal quantifies the smallest difference detectable, often measured as the noise equivalent difference (NETD). These characteristics directly impact the camera's effectiveness in applications requiring precise thermal mapping. Spatial resolution in thermal imaging cameras is primarily defined by the instantaneous (IFOV), expressed in milliradians (mrad) per , which indicates the extent covered by each detector element. The IFOV is influenced by the detector's —the physical distance between adjacent s on the —and the . For instance, a 640 × 480 with a 17 µm and a 25 mm typically achieves an IFOV of approximately 0.68 mrad per , enabling a of about 0.07 m at 100 m range. In contrast, lower-resolution s like 320 × 240 s with a 12 µm and wider-angle may yield an IFOV of 2.41 mrad per , resulting in coarser detail suitable for broader but limiting fine feature detection. Thermal sensitivity, often specified as the minimum detectable temperature difference (MDT) or closely related NETD, represents the smallest change the camera can reliably distinguish from noise, typically in millikelvins (). For uncooled microbolometer-based cameras, NETD values commonly range from 20 to 50 under standard conditions, with recent advancements achieving below 20 for enhanced low-contrast scene performance. This is significantly affected by the optics' , where lower values (e.g., f/1.0) allow greater light gathering compared to f/1.6, improving thermal by a factor of about 2.5. Key factors influencing these metrics include lens focal length, which trades off for detail; a 25 mm lens provides wide-angle coverage with moderate resolution, while longer focal lengths like 100 mm narrow the view but sharpen distant targets. Digital zoom, which electronically enlarges the image by cropping pixels, does not increase native resolution and can degrade sensitivity by reducing the effective , making it less suitable for critical identification tasks compared to optical zoom systems. Sensor array size, as detailed in detector specifications, further modulates , with larger arrays offering finer IFOV without proportional power increases. Achieving higher and involves trade-offs, as denser arrays and faster elevate costs due to specialized materials and fabrication, often increasing system price by factors of 2–5 for high-end models. Additionally, these enhancements demand more processing power, raising power consumption from typical 1–2 W in low-resolution uncooled units to several watts, which can limit portability in battery-operated devices. contributions from the , covered separately, must also be managed to realize these gains.

Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference

The Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) quantifies the thermal sensitivity of an imaging camera, defined as the minimum temperature difference between a target and its background that generates a signal equal to the root-mean-square () noise in the output. This metric, typically expressed in millikelvins (), indicates the system's ability to resolve subtle contrasts; for instance, uncooled microbolometer-based cameras often achieve NETD values around 30–50 under standard conditions at 30°C. In contrast, cooled detectors typically achieve NETD values below 10–20 , enabling higher in specialized applications at the cost of increased size and power consumption. The NETD is fundamentally limited by and can be approximated by the formula \text{NETD} = \frac{\sigma_N \sqrt{\Delta f}}{R}, where \sigma_N is the , R is the (signal output per unit temperature change), and \Delta f is the electrical , highlighting how wider bandwidth increases and thus degrades . Noise in thermal imaging arises from multiple sources, categorized as temporal or spatial. Temporal noise includes Johnson (thermal) noise from resistive elements and 1/f (flicker) noise dominant at low frequencies, both contributing to random fluctuations in pixel signals over time. Spatial noise manifests as (FPN), caused by variations in detector and across the focal plane , creating non-uniform backgrounds that degrade image quality. To mitigate FPN, two-point non-uniformity correction () is employed, utilizing images of two uniform scenes at different temperatures to compute and apply per-pixel gain and adjustments, effectively reducing spatial noise by orders of magnitude. Calibration techniques are essential for maintaining low NETD by compensating for drifts in detector response. Internal shutter-based flat-fielding involves periodically closing a uniform shutter in front of the to capture a flat scene, enabling real-time without interrupting operation. For higher precision, especially in radiometric applications, external blackbody references at precisely controlled temperatures (e.g., two points spanning the operational range) provide accurate and , minimizing residual non-uniformities to below 0.1% of full scale. Advancements in NETD reduction include temporal averaging, which suppresses random noise by a factor of $1/\sqrt{N} for N integrated frames, and post-processing techniques like AI-based denoising. In medical imaging, such low NETD enables reliable distinction of 0.1°C temperature differentials, vital for early detection of physiological anomalies like inflammation.

Applications

Military and Surveillance

Thermal imaging cameras play a critical role in military operations for night vision and target acquisition, enabling soldiers to detect heat signatures from humans and vehicles in complete darkness, adverse weather, or obscured environments. Integrated into weapon sights such as the AN/PAS-13 Thermal Weapon Sight (TWS), these devices mount on standard rails of rifles, machine guns, and sniper systems, providing forward-looking infrared imaging for precise aiming without illuminating the user. The AN/PAS-13 variants, including lightweight (LWTS), medium (MWTS), and heavy (HWTS) models, offer detection ranges varying by target type and conditions; for instance, the HWTS can recognize targets at up to 2,200 meters, while vehicle detection extends to approximately 4-7 km in some configurations, significantly enhancing engagement effectiveness beyond visible light limitations. In and perimeter , fixed thermal imaging installations with pan-tilt-zoom (PTZ) capabilities provide continuous monitoring and automated intruder detection, even through , , or total darkness. These systems, often deployed along international borders or , use thermal sensors to identify heat anomalies indicative of unauthorized movement, triggering alerts or directing response teams. For example, PTZ thermal cameras like the M1D series offer 360-degree coverage with long-range lenses, enabling detection of personnel at distances exceeding several kilometers while maintaining real-time tracking. Such deployments have been integral to enhancing in low-visibility scenarios, reducing response times to potential threats. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) equipped with thermal imaging have revolutionized in post-2010 conflicts, delivering real-time heat-based feeds for gathering and targeting. In operations like those in since 2021, military drones with thermal and systems have enabled night-time and strikes, identifying insurgent positions obscured by terrain or foliage. Similarly, in broader , these payloads support persistent overhead monitoring, allowing forces to track movements without risking personnel, as seen in the integration of thermal sensors on platforms like the MQ-9 Reaper for extended loiter times over conflict zones. However, thermal imaging faces limitations from countermeasures, including thermal cloaking materials designed to mask or mimic ambient heat signatures, thereby evading detection. Adaptive using phase-change materials or metallic structures can dynamically adjust emissions to blend with surroundings, reducing the effectiveness of standard thermal sensors in tactical scenarios. on such devices highlights their potential to disrupt by altering apparent thermal profiles, prompting militaries to develop multi-spectral detection to counter these evolving threats. Case studies from in and underscore the tactical advantages of thermal imaging, where it facilitated detection amid cluttered environments and low-light conditions. During operations in these theaters, U.S. forces issued sights to troops, enabling engagement of hidden insurgents at night and through dust storms, with over 30,000 units deployed to improve outcomes. Recent export controls on high-resolution models, imposed by the U.S. , reflect concerns over proliferation; for instance, revisions in added licensing requirements for cameras with frame rates above 9 Hz or resolutions exceeding certain thresholds when destined for military end-uses abroad, aiming to prevent adversarial advancements in similar capabilities.

Industrial and Medical

Thermal imaging cameras play a crucial role in industrial by enabling non-contact detection of thermal anomalies that signal impending equipment failures. In environments, these devices are used to electrical panels for loose or corroded components, which manifest as hotspots due to increased and generation. For instance, in rotating machinery such as motors, thermal imaging identifies elevated temperatures in bearings caused by from or inadequate , allowing technicians to schedule repairs before catastrophic breakdowns occur. In , thermal imaging cameras provide visibility through dense smoke and darkness, allowing responders to navigate structures, locate trapped victims by their , identify fire hotspots to prevent re-ignition, and assess fire spread for safer operations. Handheld units certified for extreme heat (up to 500°C) are standard equipment, improving rescue efficiency and reducing risks in zero-visibility conditions. In medical applications, thermal imaging supports non-invasive diagnostics, particularly through for fever screening and adjunctive breast cancer evaluation. During public health crises like the , FDA-cleared thermal imaging systems have been employed for initial by measuring at a distance, detecting potential fevers indicative of without physical contact. For breast cancer detection, dynamic thermal imaging captures vascular patterns and temperature variations associated with tumors; the FDA approved thermography in 1982 as an adjunctive tool to for assessing breast abnormalities, though it is not a standalone screening method. However, the FDA has issued repeated warnings (as of 2023) against its promotion as an alternative to mammography, citing lack of evidence for early detection efficacy, and major organizations like the do not endorse it for routine screening due to potential delays in diagnosis. Building inspections leverage thermal imaging to map energy losses and identify insulation deficiencies, providing a visual representation of heat flow through building envelopes. By capturing infrared emissions, these cameras reveal areas of poor insulation, such as gaps or compressions in wall cavities, where warmer indoor air escapes, leading to quantifiable increases in —studies have shown that such defects can elevate heating demands by 20-30% in affected zones. This envelope aids in prioritizing retrofits to enhance and reduce operational costs. In processes, thermal imaging ensures uniformity in temperature-sensitive manufacturing, such as and production. For food applications, cameras monitor cooking surfaces and product batches to verify even heat distribution, preventing undercooking or hotspots that compromise safety and consistency—non-contact measurements confirm compliance with standards without interrupting production lines. In fabrication, thermal imaging assesses temperature uniformity during annealing or deposition, where deviations as small as ±0.5°C can introduce defects; pyrometers integrated with imaging systems maintain process precision to achieve high yield rates. Recent advancements in handheld thermal imaging devices incorporate mobile applications for enhanced analysis, including overlay features that superimpose thermal data on visible images for intuitive diagnostics. From 2023 onward, manufacturers have released compact units with software supporting (AR) interfaces on smartphones, allowing field technicians to annotate hotspots and generate reports on-site, improving efficiency in and medical settings.

History and Advancements

Early Development

The discovery of radiation laid the foundational groundwork for thermal imaging technology. In 1800, British astronomer identified rays beyond the by passing sunlight through a prism and measuring temperature variations with a , noting higher heat in the region past red light. This breakthrough revealed the thermal component of , enabling subsequent efforts to detect and visualize it. Early detection devices emerged in the late , with Samuel Pierpont Langley's invention of the in 1880 marking a significant advance; this highly sensitive instrument measured radiant heat by detecting minute resistance changes in a strip exposed to , allowing detailed solar spectrum analysis up to several micrometers. Progress accelerated in the with improvements in detector sensitivity and early imaging concepts. Although Langley's saw refinements in the for astronomical applications, Kálmán Tihanyi pioneered practical in the late and 1930s, developing the first infrared-sensitive electronic television camera in 1929 for anti-aircraft defense, which used photoelectric cells to convert near-infrared signals into visible images. Concurrently, (PbS) photoconductive detectors were advanced in during the 1930s, offering sensitivity in the 1-3 μm near-infrared range and paving the way for military systems. World War II catalyzed the first operational thermal imaging prototypes, driven by demands for passive night detection. Devices like the American "snooper scopes" and "sniperscopes," developed during with first operational use in 1945, combined infrared illuminators with image converters to produce visible outputs from reflected near-, though they were active systems limited by illumination needs. Post-war, developed practical PbS detectors in 1947, enabling the first true passive thermal imager that captured a single image in about one hour by scanning emissions without external light sources, a milestone for uncooled near-infrared detection up to 3 μm. By the 1960s, advancements shifted toward mid- and long-wave for broader thermal sensitivity, with cooled photon detectors becoming viable for military use. Honeywell Research Center, under U.S. Air Force contracts starting in 1959, produced (HgCdTe) arrays sensitive to the 8-14 μm , operating at cryogenic temperatures around 77 K to reduce noise and enable high-resolution imaging in forward-looking systems for aircraft like the B-52. Key innovations included patents for scanning mechanisms, such as electromechanical scanning in the early to rasterize linear detector arrays into full two-dimensional images, enhancing . These developments established the core principles of modern thermal imaging before widespread commercialization.

Modern Innovations

In the late 1980s and 1990s, the development of uncooled microbolometer detectors marked a pivotal advancement in thermal imaging, enabling room-temperature operation without cryogenic cooling and significantly reducing system size, weight, and cost. These detectors, based on vanadium oxide (VOx) materials, were first patented by Honeywell in 1994 under the High-Density Array Development program. FLIR Systems accelerated commercialization through acquisitions, launching the Agema 570 in 1997 as the first uncooled long-wave infrared microbolometer camera, which eliminated cryogens to facilitate portable, handheld thermography units for industrial and military applications. By the 2000s, digital integration transformed thermal cameras, incorporating fusion with visible-light sensors to create dual-sensor systems that overlay thermal data onto high-resolution visual imagery for enhanced scene interpretation in low-visibility conditions. Early examples included the 2006 Thermoteknix Miricle 307K sensor (640 × 480 resolution, 15 FPS) and the 2008 Santa Barbara Focalplane Gobi-640-GigE (640 × 480, 50 FPS), which supported real-time processing for and UAV navigation. Wireless transmission capabilities also emerged, allowing fused video streams to be sent to remote displays or command centers, as demonstrated in systems like Tonbo Imaging's pixel-level platforms that maintained low power while enabling SD card recording and external video ports. The democratized access to thermal through consumer-grade innovations, including add-ons and automotive integrations. Seek Thermal introduced its compact camera attachment in 2014, plugging directly into and devices to provide 206 × 156 pixel thermal at a cost under $200, enabling widespread use for home inspections and outdoor activities. In automotive applications, enhanced its system in 2013 with thermal cameras capable of detecting pedestrians and up to meters away, incorporating dynamic spotlighting for improved safety. Entering the 2020s, has augmented thermal imaging with algorithms for automated , processing thermal feeds to identify pedestrians, vehicles, and anomalies while reducing false positives through contextual analysis. For instance, enhanced thermal-RGB models have improved detection in environments, with some implementations achieving up to 37.5% in false detections via optimized bounding box filtering. These AI-driven systems, often deployed on edge devices, support applications in and autonomous navigation. Looking toward future trends as of 2025, hyperspectral thermal imaging is gaining momentum, combining multiple infrared spectral bands for material-specific identification beyond traditional broadband detection, with applications in and . Integration with networks is also advancing remote monitoring, enabling low-latency streaming of thermal data from distributed sensors for in industrial settings, as seen in devices like the Sonim XP Pro Thermal phone that supports millimeter-wave connectivity for cloud-based analysis.

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