Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Exoskeleton (human)

A human exoskeleton is a wearable robotic device that augments the strength, endurance, mobility, and performance of the wearer by providing mechanical support and assistance, typically through structures that align with the body's joints and limbs.^[1] These devices interact with the human body via sensors, actuators, and control systems to enhance physical capabilities for able-bodied individuals or assist those with impairments.^[2] While orthoses typically provide passive support, often for rehabilitation, exoskeletons incorporate powered actuation for both assistance in impairments and performance enhancement in able-bodied users across various applications.^[1] Human exoskeletons can be classified into two main types: active (powered) and passive. Active exoskeletons rely on electric motors, batteries, or hydraulic systems to generate assistive forces and torques, enabling tasks like heavy lifting or prolonged locomotion with reduced metabolic cost.^[3] Passive exoskeletons, in contrast, use mechanical elements such as springs or dampers to store and release kinetic energy without an external power source, offering lightweight assistance for repetitive motions.^[3] Emerging variants include soft exosuits, which employ flexible textiles and cables to deliver targeted joint support without rigid frames, improving comfort and integration with natural movement.^[4] The development of human exoskeletons traces back to the late 19th century, with early conceptual patents like Nicholas Yagn's 1890 design for a walking and jumping aid.^[5] Significant advancements occurred in the 1960s, when the U.S. military funded General Electric to create prototypes for soldier augmentation, marking the shift toward powered systems.^[6] The first U.S. patent explicitly using the term "exoskeleton" for human augmentation was filed in 1966, laying groundwork for modern devices.^[7] By the 2000s, commercial and research efforts expanded, with examples like NASA's X1 exoskeleton for space countermeasures and Ekso Bionics' systems for rehabilitation.^[8]^[9] Applications of human exoskeletons span military, industrial, medical, and occupational domains. In military contexts, they enhance load-carrying capacity and reduce fatigue for troops.^[10] Industrially, they mitigate workplace injuries by assisting workers in manufacturing, construction, and logistics, promoting health equity across demographics.^[3] Medically, lower-limb exoskeletons support gait rehabilitation for individuals with neuromuscular impairments, improving independence and preventing secondary conditions like muscle atrophy.^[11] As of 2025, innovations including AI-powered controllers and open-source designs are expanding applications in utilities, elderly care, and beyond, with the global market reaching over USD 850 million and projected to exceed USD 2 billion by 2030 amid aging populations and labor shortages.^[12]^[13]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Concept and Components

A human exoskeleton is a wearable robotic device designed to augment, support, or restore physical capabilities by interfacing with the user's body through mechanical structures that align with the musculoskeletal system.^[14] These devices work in parallel with the human limbs, providing external forces or torques to enhance strength, endurance, or mobility without replacing the user's natural movements.^[1] The core components of a human exoskeleton include a structural frame, which can be rigid (using metals or composites for support) or soft (employing textiles or elastomers for flexibility and comfort).^[15] Joints and linkages replicate human kinematics, allowing multi-degree-of-freedom motion at key areas like hips, knees, and elbows to ensure natural range of motion.^[16] Actuators deliver the primary assistance, such as electric motors for precise torque control, hydraulic pistons for high-force applications, or pneumatic systems for lightweight operation.^[15] Power sources sustain these actuators, typically rechargeable batteries for portability in electric models or compressed air for pneumatics.^[16] Sensors enable interaction and feedback, including inertial measurement units (IMUs) for tracking motion and orientation, electromyography (EMG) electrodes for detecting muscle signals, and force/torque sensors for measuring user effort.^[15] Controllers, often microprocessors or embedded systems, process sensor data in real-time to adjust assistance levels and ensure safe, synchronized operation with the user.^[15] Operationally, exoskeletons provide torque assistance at joints to reduce user effort during tasks like walking or lifting, with integration into human biomechanics emphasizing alignment to prevent unnatural strain or misalignment.^[17] Force amplification ratios, such as up to 16:1 in industrial designs for load-bearing, allow users to handle heavier payloads with minimal additional input.^[18] Exoskeletons are classified as passive or active based on power usage. Passive exoskeletons rely on mechanical elements like springs or elastic bands for energy storage and release, providing support without external power sources.^[19] Active exoskeletons, in contrast, use powered actuators for dynamic, programmable assistance that can adapt to varying loads and movements.^[19] Human exoskeletons are distinct from prosthetic devices in that they augment the function of existing, intact limbs through external, removable structures, whereas prosthetics are designed to replace absent or amputated body parts and are often integrated more permanently with the residual limb.^[20] This augmentation approach allows exoskeletons to enhance strength, endurance, or mobility for users with complete anatomies, without necessitating surgical attachment, unlike many advanced prosthetics that interface directly with nerves or muscles for control.^[1] In contrast to orthotics, which provide passive structural support to stabilize or correct deformities—such as braces for spinal alignment or ankle stability—exoskeletons deliver powered, dynamic assistance through actuators and sensors to actively amplify human movement.^[1] For instance, while an orthotic might rigidly constrain joint motion to prevent injury, an exoskeleton can generate torque in real-time to assist with lifting or walking, enabling greater functional independence.^[21] This powered capability positions exoskeletons as active rehabilitation or enhancement tools, beyond the supportive role of traditional orthotics.^[22] Exoskeletons differ from autonomous robotics by emphasizing anthropocentric wearables that operate under human intent and control, rather than independent operation.^[23] In exoskeletons, the device senses and responds to the wearer's biomechanical signals via bidirectional human-machine interfaces, such as electromyography or force sensors, to synchronize assistance with voluntary actions.^[24] Autonomous robots, by comparison, execute tasks without direct human input, lacking the intimate physical coupling that defines exoskeletons as extensions of the human body.^[25] Regarding powered suits and end-effectors, exoskeletons feature full-body or multi-joint integration with comprehensive human-robot interaction, whereas powered suits may focus on partial augmentation and end-effectors target specific tasks with minimal body contact.^[26] End-effector devices, often used in therapy, apply forces at the limb's endpoint (e.g., hand or foot) for guided motion but lack the exoskeleton's aligned skeletal frame and distributed sensors for precise, whole-limb control.^[27] This full integration in exoskeletons enables seamless torque transmission across joints, distinguishing them from more localized or tool-like powered aids.^[28] In an evolutionary context, exoskeletons serve as a bridge between passive wearables—like simple fitness trackers or static braces—and advanced cybernetic enhancements, such as neural implants, by combining sensor-based feedback with mechanical actuation to progressively integrate human and machine capabilities.^[29] This intermediary role facilitates transitional technologies that enhance natural physiology without invasive modifications, paving the way for future symbiotic systems.^[25]

Purposes and Applications

Medical and Rehabilitation

Exoskeletons designed for medical and rehabilitation purposes primarily target gait restoration and mobility enhancement for patients with spinal cord injuries (SCI), stroke sequelae, and neuromuscular disorders such as multiple sclerosis. These devices support therapeutic recovery by enabling upright ambulation and repetitive practice in clinical environments, addressing impairments that limit independent walking. Notable FDA-cleared examples include the ReWalk Personal Exoskeleton, cleared in 2014 for individuals with lower-limb disabilities due to SCI, and the Ekso GT, cleared in 2016 for rehabilitation in SCI and stroke patients at institutions. Both introduced in the 2010s, these lower-limb systems allow users to achieve functional steps with powered assistance, promoting cardiovascular health and psychological benefits alongside motor recovery.^[30] Therapeutic mechanisms of these exoskeletons emphasize task-specific, high-repetition training to harness neuroplasticity and retrain neural pathways. By providing adjustable body weight support from 0-100%, they reduce gravitational load while guiding symmetrical gait patterns, facilitating intensive sessions without excessive fatigue. Integration with virtual reality further augments outcomes by immersing users in gamified environments that motivate engagement and reinforce sensorimotor integration, as evidenced in protocols combining exoskeleton use with non-immersive VR for stroke rehabilitation.^[31] This approach aligns with principles of motor learning, where consistent, variable practice drives cortical reorganization and improves long-term functional independence.^[32] Clinical evidence supports modest yet meaningful gains in mobility metrics among paraplegic and incomplete SCI patients. Longitudinal training exceeding 100 hours with powered exoskeletons has yielded approximately 30% improvements in overground walking speed, as measured by timed walk tests in a cohort of eight individuals with chronic SCI. Enhancements in the Berg Balance Scale, often by several points, have also been reported, correlating with better postural stability and reduced fall risk post-training.^[33]^[34] Meta-analyses of randomized trials confirm these benefits extend to balance and lower-limb strength, though effects vary by injury level and training intensity.^[35] Specific devices exemplify targeted applications: the lower-limb Hybrid Assistive Limb (HAL) by Cyberdyne, FDA-cleared in 2017, detects bioelectric signals via surface electromyography to synchronize assistance with residual muscle activity in paralysis cases. For upper-limb stroke recovery, the Armeo Power exoskeleton supports multi-joint arm movements through robotic guidance, enabling intensive therapy for hemiparetic patients.^[36]^[37] Regulatory oversight classifies these as FDA Class II devices, necessitating 510(k) premarket notification to demonstrate substantial equivalence to predicates like early ReWalk models. Reimbursement poses ongoing challenges in healthcare systems, with insurers often citing insufficient long-term data on cost-effectiveness despite Medicare coverage for certain personal use cases.^[38]

Occupational and Industrial

Occupational and industrial exoskeletons are designed to augment human capabilities in demanding work environments, primarily by offloading physical burdens to prevent injuries and enhance efficiency among able-bodied workers. Key objectives include reducing load during heavy lifting—such as supporting up to 50 kg with minimal muscular effort through devices like the Enforcer exoskeleton—and mitigating fatigue from repetitive motions, which are common in sectors prone to musculoskeletal disorders.^[39]^[40] These systems have seen adoption in manufacturing for assembly tasks, construction for material handling, and logistics for loading operations, where they redistribute forces to the exoskeleton's frame rather than the worker's body.^[41]^[42] Passive exoskeletons, which rely on springs and mechanical linkages without external power, exemplify cost-effective solutions for targeted support. The Paexo Shoulder, introduced in 2017 by Ottobock, assists overhead work by redirecting arm weight to the hips and torso, reducing shoulder muscle activation by up to 50% during tasks like screwing or painting, thereby lowering strain in manufacturing and construction settings.^[43] Active exoskeletons, powered by motors or pneumatics, offer adjustable assistance for dynamic loads; Ford's EksoVest, deployed on assembly lines since 2017, provides 2-7 kg of upward arm support per side, decreasing deltoid fatigue by 20-30% in prolonged overhead reaching without restricting mobility.^[44]^[45] Economically, these devices deliver return on investment through reduced workplace injuries and downtime, aligning with Industry 4.0 principles of human-robot collaboration. Studies indicate up to a 25% decrease in absenteeism due to musculoskeletal issues in logistics operations, as exoskeletons lower injury rates and enable longer shifts without performance decline.^[46] Integration with collaborative robots (cobots) enhances this by allowing exoskeleton-wearing operators to interface seamlessly in smart factories, where digital twins synchronize human-exo-cobot movements for precise tasks.^[47] Overall, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) highlights potential reductions in work-related injury costs, which average over $67,000 per back strain incident, by mitigating ergonomic risks in high-volume environments.^[48] Real-world case studies underscore practical benefits. At Airbus facilities, passive shoulder exoskeletons from SUITX have been implemented since the early 2020s for aircraft assembly, including overhead riveting and sealing, resulting in 15-25% lower muscle exertion and fewer ergonomic complaints among operators performing repetitive elevated tasks.^[49] In logistics, Ottobock's pilots in warehouse settings demonstrated sustained productivity gains, with workers handling repetitive picking and stacking while experiencing reduced back and shoulder fatigue over 8-hour shifts.^[46] Despite these advantages, adoption faces hurdles such as high upfront costs, ranging from $5,000 for basic passive models to $20,000 for advanced units, which can delay ROI in smaller operations.^[29] Additionally, workers require initial training—typically 1-2 hours per device—to ensure proper fit and usage, as improper donning can lead to discomfort or secondary strains, necessitating employer-led programs for compliance and effectiveness.^[50]

Military and Defense

Military exoskeletons are primarily developed to enhance soldiers' physical capabilities in demanding combat environments, with strategic goals centered on increasing load-carrying capacity and extending operational endurance while mitigating injury risks from heavy gear. For instance, programs aim to enable soldiers to carry over 100 pounds (approximately 45 kg) of equipment with reduced metabolic cost, thereby allowing longer marches and sustained missions without excessive fatigue.^[51] These systems address the physical toll of modern warfare, where soldiers often bear loads exceeding 100 kg, leading to musculoskeletal injuries that account for a significant portion of non-combat casualties.^[52] The U.S. Department of Defense's Tactical Assault Light Operator Suit (TALOS) program, initiated in the early 2010s by U.S. Special Operations Command, exemplified these objectives by integrating exoskeleton elements into a full-body armor system to boost mobility, strength, and situational awareness for special operators.^[53] Running from 2013 to 2019 with an $80 million investment, TALOS sought to create a prototype capable of enhancing load carriage during extended field operations, though it ultimately transitioned into broader Army efforts rather than a single deployable suit.^[54] Similarly, the DARPA Warrior Web program in the 2010s focused on soft, lightweight exosuits to prevent injuries and augment muscle function, targeting power consumption under 100 watts while imparting torque at key joints like the ankle, knee, and hip to reduce the energy required for load-bearing tasks.^[51] Notable systems include Lockheed Martin's Human Universal Load Carrier (HULC), a hydraulic-powered, battery-operated lower-body exoskeleton designed to assist with up to 200 pounds (90 kg) of additional load over extended distances without impeding natural movement.^[55] HULC transfers weight to the ground via titanium legs, enabling soldiers to maintain march speeds while carrying heavy rucksacks or equipment.^[56] Lockheed's ONYX, introduced around 2019, represents a softer alternative as a lower-body exoskeleton with artificial intelligence for adaptive support, primarily aiding knee and posture stability to augment strength and endurance during repetitive or prolonged squatting and standing tasks.^[57] In Russia, passive exoskeletons have been integrated into the Ratnik combat gear system since the late 2010s, with Rostec's designs reducing effective load by up to 30 kg and supporting sustained marches at 6 km/h for 24 hours when combined with body armor.^[58] Performance metrics highlight efficiency gains, such as HULC's ability to extend load-carrying endurance by distributing weight biomechanically, potentially reducing soldier fatigue by 20-50% in prolonged marches based on biomechanical testing.^[59] ONYX has demonstrated metabolic cost reductions of up to 10-15% during knee-intensive activities, integrating seamlessly with standard body armor and weapons without restricting weapon handling.^[60] Ratnik exoskeletons similarly enhance integration with existing gear, allowing for improved tactical mobility while maintaining compatibility with firearms and protective vests.^[58] Development is driven by the demands of asymmetric warfare, where prolonged engagements and urban combat require enhanced soldier resilience against fatigue and overload; DARPA's Warrior Web, for example, emphasized soft exosuits to counter these challenges by focusing on injury prevention in high-burden scenarios.^[51] U.S. Army initiatives post-TALOS continue this trajectory, testing systems to increase carrying capacity and reduce injury rates from gear weights averaging 80-100 pounds.^[61] Ethical concerns arise from the potential for exoskeletons to create unequal force enhancements in conflicts, where access to such technology could confer disproportionate advantages to equipped forces, exacerbating asymmetries and raising questions of fairness in international engagements.^[62] This disparity may also lead to an arms race in enhancement technologies, complicating proportionality in warfare and the moral equivalence of combatants.^[63]

Recreational and Consumer

Recreational and consumer exoskeletons are wearable robotic devices designed to enhance personal physical capabilities for non-professional activities, such as outdoor pursuits, sports, and daily mobility support. These systems aim to amplify athletic performance by providing targeted assistance, for instance, hip exoskeletons that reduce the metabolic cost of running by 3.9% to 8.0% through torque application at the hips, enabling users to maintain higher speeds over short distances.^[64]^[65] They also assist elderly users in mobility by offsetting body weight and reducing lower-limb strain during walking or hiking, promoting independence in everyday tasks.^[66]^[67] Prominent consumer devices include the Hypershell X series, introduced in the early 2020s and widely available by 2025, which supports hiking by delivering up to 1000W of power to the legs for up to 30 km of range, thereby extending endurance on trails.^[68]^[69] For sports applications, prototypes like the Ski-Mojo provide passive support to the legs, akin to exoskeletal elements, to alleviate fatigue during skiing.^[70] Accessibility has improved through direct-to-consumer sales and open-source initiatives, with devices like the Hypershell X Go model priced at around $999 by 2025, reflecting broader price reductions in consumer exoskeletons to under $1,000 for entry-level options.^[66]^[71] The OpenExo platform, released in 2025 as a free, open-source framework, enables users and researchers to build customizable single- or multi-joint exoskeletons using shared designs, electronics, and software, fostering community-driven innovation without traditional crowdfunding barriers.^[13]^[72] Users benefit from reduced joint stress in recreational activities, such as skiing where exoskeletons like the Ski-Mojo decrease knee and hip loading by up to 40%, allowing longer sessions with less pain, or general outdoor use that minimizes lower-body fatigue.^[73]^[74] Integration with wearables enhances usability; for example, the Hypershell+ app syncs with devices like the Apple Watch to monitor status, adjust assistance modes, and provide hands-free control during activities.^[75] Non-medical consumer exoskeletons face regulatory gaps, as standards like ASTM F48 primarily address industrial applications, leaving a lack of harmonized guidelines for safety, performance, and interoperability in personal enhancement devices.^[76] This contrasts with medical exoskeletons regulated as Class II devices by the FDA, highlighting the need for evolving frameworks to ensure consumer safety without stifling innovation.^[77]^[78]

Classification Systems

By Targeted Body Regions

Exoskeletons are classified by the specific human body regions they target, allowing for tailored support that aligns with anatomical needs and functional requirements. This categorization emphasizes the device's interaction with particular joints or limbs, enabling precise augmentation of movement, stability, or load-bearing capacity. Lower-body exoskeletons, for instance, focus on the legs to assist with locomotion, while upper-body designs prioritize arm and shoulder mobility for manipulation tasks. Full-body systems integrate support across multiple regions for comprehensive enhancement, and partial or modular variants address isolated areas like the hips or hands. Such classifications ensure devices match the degrees of freedom (DOF) inherent in human anatomy, optimizing ergonomics and efficacy.^[79] Lower-body exoskeletons primarily target the legs, aiding walking and gait rehabilitation by supporting the hip, knee, and ankle joints. These devices, such as the Indego system, enable individuals with paraplegia to achieve stable, overground walking by providing powered assistance for sit-to-stand transitions and reciprocal leg motion. The Indego, for example, straps rigidly to the torso and legs, facilitating up to 0.5 m/s walking speeds while reducing upper-body compensation for balance. This regional focus enhances stability for lower-limb impairments, as the exoskeleton transfers weight directly to the ground, minimizing fall risks during locomotion.^[80]^[81] Upper-body exoskeletons emphasize the arms and shoulders, supporting precise manipulation and overhead tasks to alleviate muscular strain. Devices like the MATE exoskeleton assist with elevated arm positions, replicating shoulder dynamics through passive mechanisms that reduce fatigue during static or repetitive activities. The MATE, worn like a second skin, provides up to eight adjustable configurations to match user posture, thereby enhancing endurance for precision-oriented work such as assembly or tool handling. This targeted support is particularly beneficial in occupational settings, where shoulder elevation often leads to overuse injuries.^[82]^[83] Full-body exoskeletons integrate support across the torso, arms, and legs for total physical augmentation, enabling heavy-load handling without isolated regional limitations. The Guardian XO, introduced in the 2020s, exemplifies this approach as a powered suit that amplifies strength across 24 DOF, allowing users to lift up to 90 kg effortlessly while maintaining natural mobility for an entire work shift. Such systems distribute assistance holistically, reducing overall strain and boosting productivity in demanding environments like manufacturing.^[84]^[85] Partial or modular exoskeletons address specific sub-regions, offering flexibility through targeted designs like hip-only systems for load transfer or hand exoskeletons for grip enhancement. Hip exoskeletons, such as quasi-passive models with springs at the hips and ankles, augment load-carrying during walking by offloading weight to the ground, potentially reducing metabolic cost by 10-20% for heavy payloads. Hand exoskeletons, meanwhile, enhance grip strength via series elastic actuators, enabling sustained force application in tasks like tool operation, with demonstrated increases of up to 50% in endurance without powered intervention. These modular approaches allow customization, combining with other components as needed.^[86]^[87] Anatomical considerations in regional classification prioritize matching the exoskeleton's DOF to human joint kinematics for seamless integration. The lower limb, for example, features seven DOF—three at the hip (flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, rotation), one at the knee (flexion/extension), and three at the ankle (dorsiflexion/plantarflexion, inversion/eversion, rotation)—which exoskeletons replicate to ensure natural gait patterns. This alignment prevents misalignment-induced resistance, enhancing user comfort and control across targeted regions.^[88]

By Structural Configuration

Human exoskeletons are classified by structural configuration into rigid, soft, and hybrid designs, each offering distinct trade-offs in support, mobility, and user comfort. Rigid exoskeletons feature fixed frames typically constructed from metals or polymers, providing high structural integrity and torque delivery through linkages aligned with human joints. Soft exoskeletons, in contrast, employ flexible textiles integrated with actuation elements like cables or pneumatics to distribute forces more conformally to the body. Hybrid configurations blend these approaches, incorporating rigid components for targeted support alongside soft elements for enhanced adaptability. Rigid exoskeletons utilize robust frames assembled from rigid links and rotational joints that parallel the human skeletal structure, enabling precise torque application but often resulting in bulkier profiles. For instance, the ReWalk Personal Exoskeleton employs a metal and polymer frame with motorized joints to assist lower-limb mobility in individuals with spinal cord injuries, delivering up to 125 Nm of torque per joint while weighing approximately 25 kg.^[89]^[90] These designs excel in high-load scenarios due to their mechanical stability but can restrict natural gait fluidity owing to their fixed geometry.^[91] Soft exoskeletons prioritize lightweight construction using textile anchors and flexible actuators to apply assistive forces without imposing rigid constraints, thereby promoting biomimetic motion. The Harvard Biodesign Lab's soft exosuit, for example, integrates waist belts, thigh harnesses, and calf wraps connected via spooled cables driven by brushless DC motors, achieving a total system weight of 5 kg with over 90% of mass centralized at the torso.^[92] This configuration reduces metabolic cost during walking by up to 24% through hip and ankle torque assistance, leveraging the body's natural kinematics for seamless integration.^[4] Pneumatic variants further enhance compliance by inflating textile bladders to generate forces, though they may require tethered air supplies in early prototypes.^[93] Hybrid exoskeletons combine rigid and soft elements to balance rigidity for force transmission with flexibility for user comfort and range of motion. The Bioservo Ironhand glove exemplifies this by pairing a soft textile glove covering all five fingers with a rigid power pack employing Soft Extra Muscle (SEM) technology—pneumatic actuators that amplify grip strength by up to 20% while reducing muscle fatigue in repetitive tasks.^[94] The glove's flexible structure allows natural hand dexterity, while the external pack provides the necessary structural support for consistent pressure application, making it suitable for industrial applications without fully encumbering the user.^[95] Within these configurations, exoskeleton kinematics further differentiate designs as serial or parallel, influencing motion fidelity and load-handling capabilities. Serial kinematics chain links and joints sequentially to mirror the human musculoskeletal arrangement, facilitating natural, expansive ranges of motion such as arm reaching or leg swinging.^[96] This approach aligns exoskeleton degrees of freedom directly with biological ones, minimizing misalignment during dynamic activities. Parallel kinematics, conversely, employ multiple branched chains connecting base to end-effector, enhancing stability and precision under heavy loads by distributing forces across redundant paths.^[97] Such designs are prevalent in shoulder exoskeletons to prevent dislocation by constraining motion in stable planes, though they may limit workspace compared to serial setups.^[98] Scalability challenges in exoskeleton design have driven miniaturization trends, significantly reducing overall weight from early prototypes exceeding 600 kg in the 1960s to under 10 kg in the 2020s. The General Electric Hardiman, developed between 1965 and 1971, weighed approximately 680 kg yet could amplify lifting capacity to 680 kg, highlighting the era's emphasis on hydraulic power over portability.^[99] By the 2020s, advancements in lightweight composites and efficient actuators have yielded devices like soft exosuits at 5 kg, enabling untethered, daily use while maintaining assistive efficacy.^[92] This evolution addresses key barriers to adoption, such as metabolic burden and donning ease, though further reductions target sub-3 kg systems for broader accessibility.^[100]

By Actuation and Power Type

Human exoskeletons are classified by actuation and power type based on the mechanisms that generate motion and force, ranging from electrically driven systems to fluid-based or unpowered elastic structures. This categorization highlights trade-offs in power output, weight, efficiency, and suitability for applications like rehabilitation or load-carrying. Electric actuation dominates due to its precision and portability, while hydraulic and pneumatic systems offer high power density for heavy-duty tasks. Passive and bio-inspired approaches prioritize lightweight design and energy efficiency without constant power input. Electric actuation relies primarily on brushed or brushless DC motors, often paired with gearboxes for torque amplification, making them the most common choice for exoskeletons due to their controllability and integration with batteries.^[15] These motors drive joints in devices like lower-limb exoskeletons for gait assistance, providing precise torque control through feedback loops. A key variant is the series elastic actuator (SEA), which incorporates a spring element between the motor and load to enable compliant force transmission; the output torque is given by \tau = k \cdot \Delta x, where k is the spring stiffness and \Delta x is the deflection, allowing safe interaction with the human body by absorbing shocks and improving impedance matching.^[101] SEAs have been implemented in elbow and knee exoskeletons for rehabilitation, enhancing torque density while reducing motor inertia effects.^[102] Hydraulic and pneumatic actuation use fluid or gas pressure for linear or rotary motion, excelling in high power density and force output suitable for industrial or military exoskeletons. Hydraulic systems, such as those in the Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX), employ bidirectional cylinders to support payloads up to 34 kg during walking, consuming around 1143 W of hydraulic power on level ground while maintaining user balance.^[103]^[104] These actuators provide rapid response and strong load-bearing capacity, with recent designs reducing actuator weight by 40% and increasing power density by 1.6 times compared to earlier prototypes.^[105] Pneumatic variants, often using compressed air bellows or cylinders, offer similar advantages but with lower weight and noise, applied in soft exosuits for joint assistance.^[106] Passive and quasi-passive exoskeletons operate without active motors, instead using springs, dampers, or elastomers to store and release mechanical energy, achieving high efficiency (>90% in energy return) and lightweight construction for prolonged use. These devices, such as elastic leg exoskeletons with counteracting springs, recoil stored energy to assist motions like walking or squatting, reducing metabolic cost without batteries.^[107] Quasi-passive designs incorporate minimal locking mechanisms or variable dampers to tune assistance, bridging passive simplicity and active adaptability while minimizing power demands.^[108] Bio-inspired actuation draws from biological muscles using materials like shape-memory alloys (SMAs) or piezoelectric elements for compact, subtle force generation in soft exoskeletons. SMAs, which contract upon heating, enable wearable devices for upper- and lower-limb rehabilitation by mimicking muscle contraction, with applications in flexible suits that provide targeted joint support.^[109] Piezoelectric actuators generate motion from electrical deformation, suited for precise, low-force tasks in bio-mimetic designs that emulate natural compliance.^[110] Power metrics across actuated exoskeletons typically involve lithium-ion batteries with energy densities around 200 Wh/kg, supporting operational durations of 2-8 hours depending on load and activity intensity; for instance, some systems achieve 3-4.5 hours of continuous use.^[111]^[112]

By Portability and Usage Mode

Human exoskeletons are classified by portability and usage mode to reflect their mobility, deployment context, and operational flexibility, enabling tailored applications from clinical settings to field operations. Stationary or tethered exoskeletons rely on external power sources, such as wall outlets or fixed infrastructure, providing unlimited runtime without onboard batteries. These systems are ideal for controlled environments like rehabilitation clinics, where mobility constraints are acceptable in exchange for high power availability and precise control. For instance, the Lokomat, a robotic gait orthosis developed by Hocoma, functions as a stationary lower-limb exoskeleton mounted over a treadmill, delivering repetitive, guided walking therapy to patients with neurological impairments by simulating natural gait patterns without runtime limitations.^[113] In contrast, portable or wearable exoskeletons are untethered, self-contained devices powered by rechargeable batteries, emphasizing user mobility and weighing typically under 10 kg to minimize encumbrance during ambulation. These designs support deployment in dynamic settings, such as home-based therapy or occupational tasks, by allowing free movement without tethers. The Hybrid Assistive Limb (HAL) by Cyberdyne exemplifies this category, featuring a lightweight, battery-operated suit with bioelectric signal detection for voluntary motion support, enabling portable use in both medical and daily living scenarios.^[114] Portability is further enhanced by features like foldability and modularity for compact storage and quick assembly; HAL's backpack-mounted power unit, for example, facilitates transport while maintaining a total system weight suitable for extended wear.^[114] Usage modes further delineate exoskeletons based on operational duration and environmental demands. Continuous modes provide all-day support for sustained activities, such as prolonged walking assistance in rehabilitation, whereas intermittent modes activate assistance only for specific tasks like lifting or bending to optimize energy use and user comfort. In industrial contexts, intermittent modes predominate for reducing musculoskeletal strain during repetitive manual handling, as seen in back-support exoskeletons that engage selectively during high-load phases.^[115] Environmental adaptability distinguishes indoor-focused models, optimized for clean, controlled spaces, from outdoor variants engineered for ruggedness, often incorporating IP67-rated enclosures to withstand dust, water immersion up to 1 meter, and harsh conditions in applications like military field operations. Brief mentions in military applications highlight the need for such portability, as detailed in dedicated sections on defense uses. A key trade-off in this classification is the inverse relationship between portability and power capacity: untethered systems sacrifice extended runtime for mobility, typically limited to 4-5 hours per charge due to compact battery constraints, compared to the infinite operation of stationary setups. This limitation drives innovations in energy-efficient actuators and swappable batteries to extend usability without compromising lightweight design.^[116] Overall, these distinctions guide exoskeleton selection based on user needs, balancing freedom of movement against performance reliability.

By Control and Intelligence Level

Exoskeletons for human use are classified by their control and intelligence levels, which determine how user input is processed, the degree of autonomy in operation, and the sophistication of decision-making algorithms. This categorization ranges from basic manual interfaces requiring direct human commands to advanced systems incorporating artificial intelligence for predictive assistance. Such classifications highlight the evolution in human-machine interaction, enabling tailored applications in rehabilitation, augmentation, and assistance while prioritizing user safety and intuitiveness.^[117] Manual control represents the simplest level, where users directly command the exoskeleton via physical interfaces such as joysticks, buttons, or switches, without automated assistance. These systems are prevalent in basic rehabilitation devices, allowing therapists or users to guide movements precisely for targeted therapy sessions, such as in upper-limb orthoses for stroke recovery. For instance, manual switching methods enable straightforward control commands, making them suitable for environments requiring explicit oversight. Semi-autonomous control builds on manual inputs by integrating sensor-driven responses with human override capabilities, enhancing responsiveness while maintaining user authority. These systems often employ electromyography (EMG) or electroencephalography (EEG) for intent detection, where surface electrodes capture muscle or brain signals to initiate actions with low latency, typically under 50 ms to align with natural movement delays. Examples include lower-limb exoskeletons that adjust assistance based on detected gait intentions, allowing seamless transitions between user-directed and automated support. This approach reduces cognitive load compared to fully manual methods and is common in assistive devices for mobility-impaired individuals.^[118]^[119] Adaptive or intelligent control elevates autonomy through artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms that predict and adapt to user needs in real-time. Reinforcement learning models, for example, analyze gait patterns to optimize torque assistance, achieving accuracies exceeding 95% in phase recognition during varied locomotion. These systems learn from user feedback over sessions, personalizing support to improve efficiency and comfort, as seen in advanced rehabilitation exoskeletons that anticipate terrain changes or fatigue. Such intelligence minimizes user effort and enhances long-term therapeutic outcomes.^[120] Hierarchical control structures organize exoskeleton operations across multiple layers, from low-level joint torque regulation to high-level task planning, ensuring coordinated and stable performance. Low-level controllers manage immediate actuator responses, while higher layers interpret complex intents like walking or grasping. Feedback loops, often implemented via proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers, correct errors in real-time using the equation:

u(t) = K_p e(t) + K_i \int_0^t e(\tau) \, d\tau + K_d \frac{de(t)}{dt}

where u(t) is the control signal, e(t) is the error, and K_p, K_i, K_d are tuning parameters. This framework is widely adopted in multi-joint systems for precise tracking and stability.^[117]^[121] Control interfaces are predominantly non-invasive, relying on surface sensors like EMG electrodes or inertial measurement units for signal acquisition without penetrating the skin. Invasive interfaces, such as implanted neural electrodes, offer higher signal fidelity but remain rare in exoskeletons due to surgical risks and ethical concerns, limited mostly to experimental brain-computer interface prototypes. Sensing integration supports these levels by providing real-time data for intent decoding and feedback.^[122]

Limitations and Overlaps in Classification

Classifying human exoskeletons presents significant challenges due to the inherent overlaps in design features, where a single device may span multiple categories such as structural configuration, actuation type, and portability. For instance, the Harvard Biodesign Lab's Soft Exosuit exemplifies this overlap by combining a soft, textile-based structure with portable, electric cable-driven actuation, enabling assistance for both medical rehabilitation (e.g., post-stroke walking) and potential occupational tasks like load carriage.^[4]^[123] Similarly, hybrid designs like OpenExo integrate modular components that allow reconfiguration across body regions, such as switching from hip-only support for gait training to elbow assistance for weightlifting, thus blurring lines between targeted body regions and usage modes.^[13] These overlaps are compounded by limitations in current classification systems, including subjective criteria like the "intelligence" level of control systems, which rely on vague assessments of autonomy versus user input without standardized metrics. Additionally, the rapid pace of technological evolution has outpaced regulatory frameworks; for example, ISO 13482:2014, which addresses safety for personal care robots including some exoskeletons, remains incomplete for broader applications like industrial or military uses and lacks comprehensive coverage of ethical and social implications as of 2025.^[124]^[125] This results in inconsistent taxonomies that hinder comparative research and commercialization. Efforts to address these issues include standardization initiatives by organizations like ASTM International's F48 committee, formed in 2017 to develop consensus standards for exoskeleton safety, performance, and terminology, particularly for industrial applications. Complementing this, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), in collaboration with IEEE, has advanced exoskeleton terminology and taxonomy frameworks to promote consistent classification across sectors.^[76] Looking ahead, advancements in artificial intelligence are further complicating classifications by blurring distinctions between actuation and control categories, as AI enables adaptive, intention-predicting systems that dynamically shift between physical power delivery and intelligent decision-making in real-time. This integration, seen in AI-driven exosuits using machine learning for neuromusculoskeletal modeling, promises enhanced personalization but necessitates updated taxonomies to accommodate such hybrid intelligence.^[23]

Design and Engineering Principles

Ergonomics and User Comfort

Ergonomic principles in human exoskeleton design prioritize alignment with the user's anatomical center of mass to minimize unintended torque and ensure balanced load distribution during movement.^[126] This alignment reduces compensatory muscle activations and enhances overall stability, particularly in lower-limb devices where misalignment can lead to gait disruptions.^[127] Additionally, exoskeletons are engineered to accommodate the natural range of motion of human joints, such as providing greater than 120° of flexion at the hips to support fluid walking and prevent kinematic constraints.^[127] Comfort is a core focus, with interface designs emphasizing even pressure distribution to limit localized stress on the skin, typically maintaining contact pressures below 20 kPa to avoid discomfort or impaired tissue perfusion.^[128] Thermal regulation further enhances usability through features like perforated panels and ventilation pathways, which mitigate heat buildup and improve perceived thermal comfort during extended wear, as demonstrated in human trials where such adaptations reduced local skin temperature by 2–4 °C.^[129] User studies employing the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) have quantified reductions in cognitive load, with passive compensatory mechanisms in exoskeleton joints lowering mental demand by facilitating smoother interactions.^[130] Investigations into perceived exertion reveal significant benefits, with back-support exoskeletons reducing subjective effort ratings by approximately 40% during overhead or lifting tasks, allowing for sustained performance without fatigue onset.^[131] Adaptation strategies include adjustable padding to optimize load sharing and biofeedback systems that deliver real-time cues for posture correction, promoting ergonomic alignment and user habituation over sessions. In the long term, these elements contribute to preventing secondary injuries, such as skin shear from frictional forces, by evenly distributing mechanical loads and minimizing relative motion at contact points.^[132] These ergonomic considerations integrate with personalization approaches for fit to maximize tolerability across diverse users.^[126]

Fit and Customization

Fit and customization in human exoskeletons involve tailoring devices to individual anthropometric variations to ensure optimal alignment, comfort, and performance. Sizing methods typically rely on anthropometric data, designing components to accommodate the 5th to 95th percentile of population dimensions, such as limb lengths and torso widths, to support a broad user base without requiring full customization for every individual.^[133] This approach integrates three-dimensional (3D) anthropometric databases to predict fit across diverse demographics, minimizing misalignment risks during initial prototyping.^[133] Advanced personalization employs 3D scanning techniques, such as structured light or LiDAR-based systems, to generate precise digital models of a user's body segments for creating custom molds and interfaces.^[134] These scans capture detailed surface geometry, joint positions, and movement ranges, enabling the fabrication of bespoke orthotic components via additive manufacturing or CNC molding.^[135] AI-driven algorithms further enhance this process by analyzing scan data to automate adjustments, such as optimizing interface padding thickness or joint offsets for individual biomechanics.^[136] Modular designs facilitate adaptability through interchangeable segments, like swappable thigh cuffs or forearm supports, allowing reconfiguration for different body regions or activity levels.^[137] Adjustable joint mechanisms, often with ranges up to 120 degrees of flexion for knee or elbow joints, enable fine-tuning of alignment via telescoping struts or variable stiffness actuators to match user-specific kinematics.^[138] These features promote versatility, as seen in lower-limb exoskeletons where modular actuation units can be added or removed to target specific joints without redesigning the entire system.^[139] Challenges arise in accommodating diverse morphologies, such as obesity, which demands expandable frames to handle increased girth and weight distribution, or amputations, requiring asymmetric modular attachments for residual limbs.^[140] Fit testing protocols involve sequential measurements of key dimensions—like thigh circumference, limb length, and joint centers—followed by iterative donning trials with pressure sensors to verify contact uniformity and range-of-motion compatibility.^[141] These protocols, often standardized in clinical or industrial settings, address variability in body shape by incorporating deformable interfaces or multi-size kits.^[142] Customized fits yield measurable outcomes, including enhanced torque transfer efficiency, where precise alignment can reduce energy losses by up to 14% during load-bearing tasks compared to off-the-shelf devices.^[143] Such improvements stem from minimized slippage and better force transmission, leading to overall gains in user efficiency and reduced metabolic demand. A well-fitted exoskeleton not only boosts mechanical performance but also contributes to ergonomic benefits like decreased localized pressure.^[144]

Power Systems and Actuators

Power systems in human exoskeletons primarily rely on rechargeable batteries to provide portable energy for actuation and control, with typical capacities ranging from 100 to 500 Wh to support several hours of operation depending on load and activity intensity.^[145] Lithium-polymer (LiPo) batteries are commonly used due to their high energy density and flexibility in form factor, enabling compact integration into wearable structures, though they pose risks of thermal runaway under high discharge rates.^[145] Emerging solid-state batteries offer improved safety and higher energy density—potentially up to 420 Wh/kg—reducing weight while enhancing cycle life for prolonged use in rehabilitation or industrial applications.^[146] Alternative power sources, such as hydrogen fuel cells, provide extended runtime beyond battery limits, as demonstrated in the HULC exoskeleton, which achieves over 72 hours of operation for load-carrying tasks by converting chemical energy to electrical power with minimal weight penalty.^[147] Actuators convert electrical or other energy into mechanical motion to assist human joints, with electric motors dominating portable designs for their precision and backdrivability, allowing natural compliance during unpowered phases to mimic human movement without resistance.^[148] Hydraulic actuators, in contrast, deliver superior power-to-weight ratios—often up to 10 times that of electric systems—enabling high-torque output for heavy-load support, but they generate significant noise from pumps and valves, limiting their use in quiet environments like healthcare settings.^[149]^[150] Efficiency in exoskeleton operation is quantified by mechanical power output, calculated as P = \tau \times \omega, where \tau is joint torque and \omega is angular velocity, ensuring actuators match human gait demands without excessive energy draw.^[151] Energy consumption models for walking typically require around 100 J per step to assist lower-limb motion, factoring in the exoskeleton's added inertia and user payload.^[152] Integration challenges include managing heat dissipation to keep component temperatures below 40°C, preventing discomfort or skin irritation during extended wear, often addressed through passive cooling or material choices.^[153] Weight balancing is critical, with actuators ideally comprising less than 20% of the total exoskeleton mass—such as 21% in lightweight hip designs—to minimize metabolic burden on the user. Recent advancements enhance sustainability, including regenerative braking systems that recover up to 20% of kinetic energy during deceleration phases by backdriving motors as generators, extending battery life in cyclic activities like walking.^[116] Wireless charging technologies are also emerging, allowing inductive power transfer without connectors, as seen in prototypes integrating pads for seamless recharging during rest periods.^[154] Power delivery is further optimized through control strategies that modulate voltage and current in real-time.^[155]

Sensing, Control, and Feedback

Sensing in human exoskeletons relies on a variety of sensor modalities to capture user motion, interaction forces, and physiological signals for enabling precise assistance. Inertial measurement units (IMUs), incorporating accelerometers and gyroscopes, are commonly employed to track limb orientation and gait kinematics in real time. Force and torque sensors, such as strain gauges integrated into joints, measure interaction forces between the user and the device to detect ground reaction and joint loads. Biological sensors like surface electromyography (EMG) electrodes detect muscle activation patterns, allowing the exoskeleton to infer user intent and modulate assistance accordingly.^[15]^[156]^[157] Control architectures in exoskeletons emphasize responsive and adaptive strategies to ensure safe human-robot interaction. Impedance control is a foundational method that shapes the device's dynamic response by regulating its virtual impedance, defined as the ratio of force to velocity (Z = \frac{F}{v}), enabling compliant behavior that mimics natural limb dynamics during tasks like walking or grasping. Adaptive algorithms further enhance performance by adjusting control parameters in response to user-specific factors, such as muscle fatigue detected via EMG or kinematic drift, thereby optimizing torque assistance to prevent overexertion and prolong endurance.^[158]^[159]^[160] Feedback mechanisms provide users with intuitive cues to improve awareness and control during operation. Haptic feedback, often delivered through vibrations on the exoskeleton's frame, offers balance cues by signaling postural deviations, helping users correct sway in real time. Auditory and visual interfaces, such as beeps or LED indicators, guide gait timing and alert to anomalies, enhancing overall coordination without cognitive overload.^[161]^[162] Real-time processing is critical for seamless exoskeleton operation, typically achieved through edge computing architectures that minimize latency to under 10 ms for responsive control loops. Machine learning models integrated into these systems enable anomaly detection, such as fall prediction, with accuracies around 90% by fusing IMU and force sensor data to anticipate instability.^[163]^[164] Despite these advances, challenges persist in maintaining sensor reliability and integration. Sensor drift, particularly in IMUs, requires periodic calibration techniques like regression-based error correction to ensure accurate orientation tracking over extended use. Multi-modal fusion algorithms, combining data from IMUs, EMG, and force sensors, address signal inconsistencies but demand robust methods to weigh inputs effectively and avoid processing delays.^[165]^[166]^[167]

Materials and Durability

Human exoskeletons require materials that balance high strength-to-weight ratios, flexibility, and longevity to support user mobility without excessive burden. Structural components often employ lightweight metals and composites to withstand dynamic loads during locomotion, while soft interfaces prioritize compliance to minimize skin irritation. These choices are driven by biomechanical demands, ensuring the device augments rather than impedes natural movement.^[168] Aluminum alloys, such as 7075-T6, are commonly selected for frames and linkages due to their yield strength exceeding 300 MPa, providing sufficient rigidity for load-bearing elements like lower-limb supports. Titanium alloys offer similar advantages with enhanced corrosion resistance, though at higher cost, and are used in high-stress joints where yield strengths around 800-1000 MPa are needed. Carbon fiber composites, with Young's moduli up to 200 GPa and densities below 2 g/cm³, enable ultra-lightweight construction for upper-body or full-body exoskeletons, reducing overall device mass by up to 40% compared to steel alternatives.^[169]^[170] Soft components, integral to user interfaces, utilize textiles like Kevlar for high-tensile strength in straps and harnesses, capable of enduring repeated flexing without fraying. Elastomers, such as thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) with Shore A hardness around 50-90, provide the necessary flexibility for conformal joints and padding, allowing multi-axis movement while distributing pressure evenly. These material properties contribute to user comfort by adapting to body contours, as explored in ergonomics-focused designs.^[171]^[172] Durability is ensured through fatigue-resistant formulations, with aluminum and composite structures tested to withstand over 10^6 loading cycles under simulated gait conditions, preventing crack propagation in repetitive use. Corrosion protection via anodizing on aluminum parts forms a hard oxide layer, enhancing resistance to sweat and environmental exposure in medical or industrial settings. Compliance with MIL-STD-810 standards for environmental testing verifies performance across temperature extremes (-51°C to 71°C), vibration, and humidity, critical for rugged applications.^[173]^[174]^[175] Trade-offs between cost and performance are evident in manufacturing choices; traditional alloys and composites yield superior strength but elevate expenses, whereas 3D-printed polymers like nylon or PLA can reduce production costs by up to 50% for prototypes and custom fits, albeit with lower fatigue limits. This approach suits low-volume rehabilitation devices, prioritizing accessibility over extreme durability.^[176] Sustainability efforts focus on recyclable materials, such as bio-based composites and aluminum alloys that support closed-loop recycling, minimizing waste in end-of-life disposal. Lifecycle analyses of exoskeleton systems indicate potential operational lifespans of 15-20 years with proper maintenance, factoring in energy use from production to decommissioning and highlighting reduced environmental impact through modular, repairable designs.^[177]

Safety, Reliability, and Ethical Issues

Human exoskeletons incorporate various safety features to mitigate risks during operation, including emergency stop mechanisms that immediately halt device motion upon user activation or detection of anomalies, and fail-safe modes such as power-off limp positions that allow passive joint movement to prevent entrapment or falls.^[178] These designs are informed by risk assessment standards like ISO 14971, which guides the identification, evaluation, and control of hazards in medical devices, including potential issues like joint misalignment or unintended actuator activation in exoskeletons.^[179] Reliability in exoskeletons is enhanced through metrics such as mean time between failures (MTBF), with some powered systems achieving over 10,000 operational hours to ensure consistent performance, and redundancy in critical actuators to maintain functionality even if one component fails, thereby reducing the risk of sudden breakdowns during use.^[180]^[181] Ethical concerns surrounding human exoskeletons include the potential for user dependency, where prolonged reliance on the device may diminish natural mobility skills over time, particularly in rehabilitation contexts. Accessibility inequities arise due to high costs, with advanced units often exceeding $50,000, limiting adoption to affluent users or well-funded institutions and exacerbating disparities for low-income individuals with disabilities.^[182]^[183]^[184] Debates on military weaponization highlight fears that exoskeletons could escalate conflicts by enhancing soldier lethality and endurance, potentially violating international humanitarian laws on proportional force.^[63] Regulatory frameworks address these issues through requirements like CE marking in the European Union, which certifies compliance with safety and performance standards for marketable exoskeletons such as the Rex model, and HIPAA in the United States for protecting biometric data collected by devices, ensuring privacy in health-related applications.^[179]^[185] Case studies from hazard surveys report injuries like skin abrasions or joint strains from misalignment, underscoring the need for ongoing vigilance despite low incidence rates in controlled trials.^[186] To mitigate risks, developers employ human-in-the-loop testing, where users provide real-time feedback to refine control algorithms and ensure safe assistance during activities like walking. Additionally, bias audits in AI-driven controls help prevent discriminatory outcomes by evaluating datasets for equitable representation across user demographics, promoting fair performance in adaptive exoskeletons.^[187]^[188]

Historical Evolution

19th and Early 20th Century Origins

The origins of human exoskeletons trace back to the late 19th century, amid the Industrial Revolution's push for mechanical augmentation of human labor and mobility. A seminal invention was the "apparatus for facilitating walking, running, and jumping" patented in 1890 by Russian inventor Nicholas Yagn of St. Petersburg.^[189] This device consisted of a leg exoskeleton with parallel springs and levers attached to the user's limbs, designed to support body weight, store energy during movement, and release it to assist strides, jumps up to several meters, and runs at increased speeds.^[190] Powered solely by the wearer's muscle energy through spring recoil, it represented an early attempt to amplify lower-body locomotion without external motors, though prototypes were cumbersome and limited to short bursts of activity.^[191] In the early 1900s, conceptual foundations expanded through fiction and rudimentary prototypes, blending imaginative speculation with practical engineering. Real-world efforts included experimental devices for military use, though documentation remains sparse. These early exoskeletons were inherently limited by their unpowered nature, relying on mechanical springs and user exertion, which made them heavy (often exceeding 20-30 kg in total assembly) and prone to rapid wear.^[192] Lacking electronics or feedback systems, they offered no adaptive control, restricting use to able-bodied individuals in controlled settings and highlighting the era's dependence on manual labor amid growing industrialization. Driven by needs in mining, construction, and early mechanized warfare, these precursors laid groundwork for passive actuation but underscored the challenges of integrating human biomechanics with rigid mechanics.^[193] Culturally, the period's World's Fairs amplified interest in such mechanical aids, showcasing innovations that promised to enhance human movement. At the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle, exhibits featured labor-saving devices like the Rue de l'Avenir moving sidewalk—a 4 km electric conveyor aiding pedestrian transport—and early automatons demonstrating powered locomotion, symbolizing the era's optimism for technology to overcome physical limits.) These displays, attended by millions, popularized concepts of mechanical assistance, bridging industrial prototypes with public imagination for future wearable enhancements.^[194]

Mid-20th Century Prototypes

The mid-20th century marked a pivotal shift toward powered exoskeletons, transitioning from unpowered mechanical aids to devices incorporating hydraulics and early control systems, largely driven by U.S. military interests in augmenting soldier strength for logistics and combat support.^[195] These prototypes emerged in the 1960s amid Cold War-era demands for enhanced human performance in industrial and defense applications, building on theoretical concepts from cybernetics and biomechanics.^[196] One of the earliest powered prototypes was the Man Amplifier developed by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory (CAL) under U.S. Air Force contract from 1961 to 1962. This exoskeleton aimed to boost human lifting capacity to around 1,500 pounds while maintaining operator precision, using hydraulic servos at the joints connected to a portable 150-pound power pack.^[195] Tests on an elbow-joint amplifier demonstrated effective force augmentation without significantly increasing tracking errors, achieving a root-mean-square error of 1.6 degrees across loads from 0 to 50 pounds.^[195] The design emphasized bilateral control for intuitive operation, with preliminary estimates placing the full system's weight at 525 to 650 pounds, highlighting early efforts to balance power with wearability.^[195] A more ambitious full-body prototype, the Hardiman (Human Augmentation Research and Development Investigation plus Man), was pursued by General Electric from November 1965 to August 1971, funded by the U.S. military. This electrohydraulic system featured 30 powered joints (15 per arm and leg) capable of amplifying the wearer's strength by a 25:1 force feedback ratio, allowing lifts of up to 1,500 pounds at speeds of 2.5 feet per second.^[197] The arms achieved stable operation through bilateral servo controls, but the legs relied on unilateral servos with indirect force feedback, limiting mobility to tethered support and short steps.^[197] Despite innovations like 25-horsepower hydraulic actuation at 3,000 psi pressure, the prototype weighed 1,500 pounds and suffered from instability, overcontrol in the lower body, and high power demands.^[197] Technical advances during this era included the integration of hydraulic actuators for precise force transmission and basic feedback loops to mimic natural motion, reducing the cognitive load on operators compared to passive devices.^[197] However, setbacks were significant: exorbitant development costs, coupled with unresolved control challenges like resonant vibrations and balance issues, led to the Hardiman's abandonment in 1971 without achieving untethered walking.^[197] These prototypes underscored the era's focus on military applications but revealed fundamental hurdles in stability and portability that stalled progress until later decades.^[195]

Late 20th Century Commercialization

During the late 20th century, human exoskeleton development transitioned from primarily military and research-oriented prototypes to initial commercial viability, with a strong emphasis on rehabilitation for mobility-impaired individuals and industrial aids for worker support. This period saw the emergence of devices that integrated basic power assistance, though widespread adoption was constrained by technological limitations. Key breakthroughs included the LIFESUIT, developed in the 1980s as an early soft exoskeleton for robotic rehabilitation, enabling paralyzed users to perform therapy exercises aimed at restoring mobility through simulated natural movements.^[198] In parallel, Japanese researchers advanced soft and powered designs influenced by the aging population's needs, with institutions like Waseda University incorporating Zero Moment Point (ZMP) stability concepts—first demonstrated in 1984—for humanoid-integrated exoskeletons that supported balanced locomotion in the 1990s.^[199] These innovations prioritized lightweight fabrics and pneumatic actuators over rigid frames, laying groundwork for user-friendly rehab tools. Commercial entries gained traction through academic-industry collaborations, notably Homayoon Kazerooni's projects at UC Berkeley, where mid-1980s research on upper-extremity "human extender" systems evolved into the Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX) in the early 2000s, achieving untethered bipedal walking with load-bearing capacity up to 30 kg while leveraging impedance control for natural gait. In rehabilitation, the Lokomat represented a milestone; developed in the late 1990s by engineers at ETH Zurich and Balgrist University Hospital and introduced in 2001, this robotic gait orthosis paired an exoskeletal frame with a body-weight support system on a treadmill, facilitating repetitive, controlled stepping patterns for stroke and spinal cord injury patients in clinical settings. Adoption began with targeted pilots: Regulatory progress emerged modestly, with the European Union granting early approvals in the 1990s for powered orthopedic braces incorporating basic actuation, allowing supervised medical deployment of hybrid passive-active systems.^[111] Persistent challenges impeded broader commercialization, including rudimentary battery technology that confined untethered operation to roughly 1 hour of use due to low energy density and overheating risks, alongside exorbitant costs often surpassing $100,000 per unit from custom fabrication and limited production scales.^[198] These factors, combined with the need for advanced sensing and control—such as force feedback loops to synchronize with user intent—restricted devices to specialized labs and hospitals.

21st Century Innovations and Market Growth

The 21st century marked a pivotal era for human exoskeletons, transitioning from experimental prototypes to commercially viable devices with advanced features like electromyography (EMG)-based control and regulatory approvals. In 2014, Ekso Bionics received FDA clearance for its Ekso device, the first powered exoskeleton approved for assisting individuals with spinal cord injuries in rehabilitation settings, enabling overground walking with reciprocal gait support.^[200] Similarly, Cyberdyne's Hybrid Assistive Limb (HAL) launched on the market in 2013 following global safety certification, utilizing EMG sensors to detect bioelectric signals from muscles and provide intuitive assistive torque for lower-limb mobility in medical and daily applications.^[201] These milestones facilitated broader clinical adoption, with HAL emphasizing neuroplasticity through active user control.^[202] Technological advancements accelerated with the integration of soft robotics and artificial intelligence (AI). The DARPA Warrior Web program, culminating in prototypes like SRI International's SuperFlex suit by 2016, introduced lightweight, textile-based exosuits that reduce metabolic cost during loaded walking by applying assistive forces to hip and ankle joints without rigid frames.^[203] AI-driven predictive controls emerged as a key innovation, enabling exoskeletons to anticipate user intent through machine learning algorithms trained on motion data, adapting to varied gaits like walking, running, or stair climbing without user-specific recalibration.^[204] The global exoskeleton market expanded significantly, growing from approximately $100 million in 2010—driven by early medical devices—to about $500 million as of 2025, with projections reaching $2 billion by 2030, fueled by rehabilitation and industrial applications.^[205]^[206] Leading companies drove this growth across regions: ReWalk Robotics in the U.S. pioneered personal mobility exoskeletons for home use, Ottobock in Europe developed modular systems like Paexo for industrial ergonomics, and Fourier Intelligence in Asia advanced AI-integrated devices such as the ExoMotus for stroke recovery.^[207] Military applications included the U.S. Army's ONYX exoskeleton, introduced in 2020 by Lockheed Martin, which uses AI to augment lower-body strength for load-carrying tasks, reducing soldier fatigue in field tests.^[208] Recent trends emphasize consumer accessibility, exemplified by Hypershell's 2024 X-series exoskeleton, a lightweight, AI-powered device for outdoor activities that offsets up to 30 kg of load to enhance hiking and daily mobility.^[209] Sustainability efforts in manufacturing have gained traction, with companies adopting recyclable textiles and energy-efficient actuators to minimize environmental impact while promoting long-term workforce health.^[210] Looking ahead, exoskeletons are poised for integration with neural interfaces, such as brain-computer interfaces for direct thought-controlled movement, enhancing autonomy for users with severe impairments. The market is expected to sustain a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of approximately 20% through 2030, reaching over $1.5 billion, supported by advancements in AI and soft materials.^[211] These developments, while promising, raise ethical considerations regarding equitable access, as detailed in discussions on safety and reliability.^[205]

Cultural and Fictional Portrayals

Representations in Media and Literature

Exoskeletons have long captured the imagination of science fiction authors as wearable mechanical enhancements that amplify human capabilities in warfare and exploration. In H.G. Wells' 1903 short story "The Land Ironclads," massive, tank-like mechanical suits equipped with pedrails allow soldiers to traverse difficult terrain while protected by iron plating, prefiguring concepts of powered personal armor in mechanized combat. This early depiction emphasized the fusion of human operators with hulking machinery for battlefield dominance. Robert A. Heinlein's 1959 novel Starship Troopers advanced the trope further by introducing powered armor suits that integrate with the wearer's movements through servo-assisted exoskeletons, granting superhuman strength, speed, and integrated weaponry to mobile infantry troopers fighting alien threats.^[212] Heinlein's suits, controlled via neural feedback, became a seminal influence on the genre, portraying exoskeletons as essential tools for interstellar conflict.^[213] In film and television, exoskeletons often symbolize technological heroism and military augmentation. The Iron Man film series, beginning in 2008, features Tony Stark's arc reactor-powered suits as sleek, full-body exoskeletons capable of flight, enhanced strength, and advanced weaponry, transforming the protagonist from a vulnerable industrialist into a high-mobility aerial combatant.^[214] These suits blend personal armor with jet propulsion, emphasizing seamless integration and real-time adaptability in urban and extraterrestrial battles. Similarly, the 2014 film Edge of Tomorrow depicts bulky combat exoskeletons issued to human soldiers fighting alien invaders, providing hydraulic limb enhancements for wielding heavy weapons and improved endurance, though their cumbersome design highlights the physical toll on users during prolonged engagements.^[215] The suits' articulated frames and mounted armaments underscore themes of desperate technological improvisation against overwhelming odds.^[216] Video games have popularized exoskeletons as interactive symbols of empowerment and tactical depth. In the Halo franchise, debuting in 2001, the MJOLNIR Powered Assault Armor serves as a high-tech exoskeleton for Spartan super-soldiers, augmenting strength to lift multi-ton loads, boosting speed to superhuman levels, and incorporating reactive shields and neural interfaces for precise control in first-person combat scenarios.^[217] This armor evolves across installments, emphasizing its role in enhancing human physiology against Covenant forces, with variants focusing on stealth, reconnaissance, or heavy assault. Common tropes in exoskeleton fiction revolve around transformative power balanced by limitations, evolving from rudimentary designs to fluid integrations. Superhuman strength is a staple, enabling wearers to perform feats like demolishing structures or overpowering foes, as seen in Heinlein's amplified infantry or Iron Man's repulsor blasts.^[218] Vulnerability to electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) frequently serves as a narrative weakness, disrupting power systems and rendering suits inert, a device used to heighten tension in battles where technology falters.^[218] Depictions have progressed from clunky, industrial prototypes—such as the 1986 film Aliens' P-5000 Power Loader, a hydraulic exoskeleton originally for cargo handling but repurposed for combat, with its exposed mechanisms and limited mobility evoking raw mechanical strain—to more seamless cybernetic shells, like Major Motoko Kusanagi's prosthetic body in the 1995 anime Ghost in the Shell, where the cybernetic shell mimics organic fluidity for espionage and infiltration.^[219]^[220] This evolution reflects shifting cultural views from brute-force machinery to bio-integrated enhancements.^[221] These fictional representations have fueled public fascination with exoskeletons, inspiring widespread interest in their potential applications and contributing to heightened awareness in popular culture.^[222]

Impact on Public Perception and Development

Fictional portrayals of exoskeletons, particularly in blockbuster films like Iron Man (2008), have significantly boosted public interest in STEM fields and related technologies. The release of the film led to a surge in awareness, with defense companies quickly capitalizing on the heightened enthusiasm for powered suits, prompting increased investment in exoskeleton prototypes. This cultural phenomenon contributed to broader engagement with engineering concepts, as characters like Tony Stark exemplified innovative problem-solving through robotics and materials science, inspiring aspiring scientists and engineers. Coinciding with this, exoskeleton-related inventions saw substantial growth, with patents in assistive robotics expanding over 20-fold from 2000 to 2020, reflecting a maturing field driven partly by popular media's role in normalizing advanced human augmentation.^[223]^[224] Such depictions have directly influenced research and development trajectories, especially in military applications. DARPA's programs in the 2010s, including the Exoskeletons for Human Performance Augmentation initiative launched in 2000 and extended through efforts like TALOS (Tactical Assault Light Operator Suit), drew inspiration from science fiction visions of enhanced soldiers, echoing comic book and film portrayals of full-body suits that amplify strength and endurance. These programs, funded with tens of millions, aimed to create wearable systems for load-bearing and mobility, mirroring sci-fi aesthetics while advancing real-world hydraulics and sensor integration. Additionally, indirect collaborations between technologists and filmmakers have emerged to ensure portrayals align more closely with feasible engineering, as seen in consultations for films depicting powered armor, fostering a feedback loop where fiction informs technical roadmaps and vice versa.^[225]^[226] On a societal level, media representations have played a dual role in shaping attitudes toward assistive exoskeletons. Positive portrayals in rehabilitation contexts, such as in films and series showing devices aiding mobility for the disabled, have helped destigmatize these technologies by presenting them as empowering tools rather than mere medical aids, encouraging wider acceptance among users and caregivers. However, persistent "cyborg" anxieties—fueled by dystopian narratives of human-machine fusion—have sometimes hindered adoption, with wearers reporting social discomfort from labels like "Robocop" and concerns over loss of bodily autonomy, leading to slower integration in everyday settings like workplaces or homes. Studies highlight how these fears contribute to psychological barriers, including mechanistic dehumanization, where exoskeleton users question their humanity, thus impacting public willingness to embrace the tech.^[227]^[228]^[229] In the 2020s, video games like Cyberpunk 2077 (2020) have amplified consumer hype around exoskeletons, portraying them as customizable cyberware enhancements that blend seamlessly with urban lifestyles, which has spurred interest in commercial ventures. This virtual normalization has indirectly driven startup activity in consumer-grade devices, with companies exploring lightweight, non-medical exosuits for gaming peripherals and everyday augmentation, capitalizing on the game's massive audience to market prototypes as "real-world cyberware." Such trends illustrate how interactive media accelerates market entry by generating demand for accessible, stylish versions beyond clinical use. Broader implications include the amplification of ethical discourse surrounding exoskeletons, where science fiction themes of autonomy loss—such as involuntary enhancements or identity erosion—have prompted real-world debates on consent, equity, and human enhancement. Films and games exploring these motifs have influenced policy discussions and academic papers, urging developers to address issues like privacy in neural interfaces and equitable access, ensuring that fictional warnings guide responsible innovation rather than unchecked progress.^[230]^[231]

References

[1]
Exoskeletons and orthoses: classification, design challenges and ...
In general, the term 'exoskeleton' is used to describe a device that augments the performance of an able-bodied wearer, whereas the term 'orthosis' is typically ...
[2]
[PDF] Lower Extremity Exoskeletons and Active Orthoses - Yale Engineering
In general, the term “exoskeleton” is used to describe a device that augments the performance of an able-bodied wearer. The term. “active orthosis” is typically ...
[3]
Exoskeletons and Occupational Health Equity - CDC Blogs
Dec 14, 2020 · Occupational exoskeletons are “wearable devices that augment, enable, assist, and/or enhance physical activity through mechanical interaction ...
[4]
Soft Exosuits | Harvard Biodesign Lab
These wearable garments provide means to transmit assistive torques to a wearer's joints without the use of rigid external structures. In order to obtain high- ...
[5]
[PDF] Exosuits: Past, Present, and Future - UAB Digital Commons
In January 28, 1890, Nicholas Yagn patented the first exoskeleton-like device that could facilitate walking, running, and jumping3. Seventy-four years later, ...
[6]
Exoskeletons in Nursing and Healthcare: A Bionic Future - PMC - NIH
Initially, they were pioneered by General Electric in the 1960s who received funding from the United States Department of Defence to build a prototype to enable ...
[7]
An Introduction to the Special Issue on Occupational Exoskeletons
Jan 10, 2020 · The first patent application to include the word “exoskeleton” for human augmentation seems to have been filed in June, 1966 (US #3,449,769).
[8]
[PDF] X1: A Robotic Exoskeleton for In-Space Countermeasures and ...
X1 is a new robotic exoskeleton that not only provides mobility for humans on earth, but is also being evaluated as an in-space countermeasures and dynamometry ...
[9]
Ekso - ROBOTS: Your Guide to the World of Robotics
Rating 3.9 (4,470) Originally Berkeley Bionics, Ekso Bionics began its evolution in 2005 with the ExoHiker, an exoskeleton that let able-bodied people carry 90 kg (about 200 lb) ...
[10]
Active Exoskeleton Control Systems: State of the Art - ScienceDirect
The history of the active exoskeleton can be traced back to the 1960s. The US military had developed several exoskeletons to augment and amplify the soldier ...
[11]
Systematic review on wearable lower-limb exoskeletons for gait ...
Feb 1, 2021 · Likewise, wearable exoskeletons may improve mobility and independence in non-ambulatory people, and may reduce secondary health conditions ...
[12]
[PDF] Exoskeletons for Utilities - OSTI
This report explores the potential of active exoskeleton technology within the utility sector, focusing on its application for linemen who face significant ...
[13]
Compliant lower limb exoskeletons: a comprehensive review ... - NIH
May 9, 2019 · Exoskeleton: Mechanical system worn by humans to augment, complement or substitute the function of natural limbs which work in parallel with the ...Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
[14]
Sensors and Actuation Technologies in Exoskeletons: A Review
Actuators and sensors are fundamental elements within the overall system that constitutes the exoskeleton. Actuators are key elements in active devices, and the ...
[15]
Passive and Active Exoskeleton Solutions: Sensors, Actuators ...
This review paper examines the sensors, actuators, mechanisms, design, and applications of passive and active exoskeletons
[16]
Tapping Into Skeletal Muscle Biomechanics for Design and Control ...
Sep 26, 2023 · In this narrative review, we summarize the advances in literature with respect to the fusion of muscle biomechanics and lower limb exoskeletons.Measuring Muscle... · Direct Measures · Muscle Biomechanics For...<|control11|><|separator|>
[17]
(PDF) Powered Exoskeleton for Industrial Applications - ResearchGate
Feb 17, 2018 · The maximum force amplification ratio (i.e. ratio of exoskeleton output force to user input force) is approximately 16:1.
[18]
Exoskeletons - CCOHS
Sep 22, 2022 · Passive exoskeletons use levers, springs, counterbalance forces, and other non-electrical means to support the user's posture or movement.
[19]
Exoskeletons & Prosthetics - FAULHABER Drive Systems
Prosthetic devices are – in contrast to powered orthotics or exoskeletons – designed to replace a missing body part.
[20]
Orthotic Exoskeletons
An orthotic exoskeleton is different from a conventional orthosis because it uses an external power source to supplement and produce movement.
[21]
Exoskeletons and orthoses: classification, design challenges and ...
Exoskeletons that act in parallel with human joint(s) for torque and work augmentation. Examples are the HAL 5 exoskeleton [49, 50] and the MIT active ankle- ...
[22]
AI in therapeutic and assistive exoskeletons and exosuits - Science
Jul 30, 2025 · For regulatory, ethical, and legal reasons, an exoskeleton that achieves full autonomy is neither necessary nor desirable. For therapeutic ...
[23]
Sensemaking, adaptation and agency in human-exoskeleton ... - NIH
Oct 12, 2023 · Exoskeletons are unique in that humans interact with the technologies on both a physical and cognitive level, and as such, involve a complex, ...
[24]
Shaping high-performance wearable robots for human motor and ...
Feb 26, 2024 · Most wearable robots such as exoskeletons and prostheses can operate with dexterity, while wearers do not perceive them as part of their ...
[25]
Robotic Devices used in Rehabilitation - Physiopedia
Compared to exoskeletons, end-effector-based systems require far less adjustment to individual patients. ... However, due to the reduced contact between the human ...
[26]
System Framework of Robotics in Upper Limb Rehabilitation on ...
In summary, the exoskeleton robot can realize more accurately the assist motion, and the end-effector rehabilitation robot has better performance on feedback ...
[27]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6311736/
[28]
An Exciting Future For Exoskeletons - ABI Research
Jun 10, 2022 · Exoskeletons serve as the bridge between robotics and smart wearables placed on the human body, providing a holistic view of the performance ...
[29]
Home - Eksobionics
Inpatient Rehab. EksoNR is the only FDA cleared exoskeleton for brain injury and MS and was the first exoskeleton to be cleared for both stroke and SCI. ...
[30]
A Rehabilitation Program of Exoskeleton-assisted Body Weight ...
May 16, 2025 · A Rehabilitation Program of Exoskeleton-assisted Body Weight-Supported Treadmill Training with Non-immersive Virtual Reality for Stroke Patients.
[31]
Shaping neuroplasticity by using powered exoskeletons in patients ...
Apr 25, 2018 · The use of neurorobotic devices may improve gait recovery by entraining specific brain plasticity mechanisms, which may be a key issue for ...
[32]
https://jneuroengrehab.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12984-018-0377-8
[33]
Muscle adaptations in SCI: Exoskeleton + FES pilot study
Oct 12, 2022 · Early intervention with robotic exoskeleton may contribute to improved muscle function measured using MRI in individuals with acute SCI.
[34]
Comparative efficacy of robotic exoskeleton and conventional gait ...
May 29, 2025 · This meta-analysis discovered the evidence that robotic exoskeleton gait training can improve the walking balance, strength of lower limbs, functional scores ...
[35]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12121209/
[36]
Who May Benefit From Armeo Power Treatment? A ... - PubMed
Our data suggest that use of Armeo Power may improve upper limb motor function recovery as predicted by reshaping of cortical and transcallosal plasticity.
[37]
A framework for clinical utilization of robotic exoskeletons in ...
Oct 29, 2022 · Influence of a locomotor training approach on walking speed and distance in people with chronic spinal cord injury: a randomized clinical trial.
[38]
Enforcer - Exoskeleton Report
The operational load on the exoskeleton ranges from 0 to 50 kg (o to 110 lb); The maximum permissible load on the exoskeleton and the lifting module is 60 kg ( ...Missing: capacity | Show results with:capacity
[39]
The Exoskeletons Are Here - Industry EMEA
Jul 14, 2021 · ... exoskeleton with 12 degrees of freedom and 50kg load bearing capacity. All three models are fully electric with battery power for 5 hours of ...
[40]
Industrial Exoskeletons - CDC Blogs
Jan 7, 2020 · Wearable exoskeleton devices may be beneficial in reducing musculoskeletal loads that are not otherwise reduced by changes in engineering ...Missing: mitigation logistics
[41]
Industrial exoskeletons: how they reduce fatigue and improve safety ...
Muscle fatigue is one of the main causes of injuries and reduced performance at work. The use of exoskeletons helps to unload weight and effort on structures ...<|separator|>
[42]
A Novel Passive Occupational Shoulder Exoskeleton With ... - arXiv
Nov 21, 2024 · De Bock et al., “An occupational shoulder exoskeleton reduces muscle activity and fatigue during overhead work,” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng ...
[43]
Ford Assembly Line Workers Try Out Exoskeleton Tech to Boost ...
Nov 10, 2017 · The EksoVest elevates and supports a worker's arms while the worker is performing overhead tasks, and provides adjustable lift assistance of five pounds to 15 ...
[44]
Exoskeletons Lend a Lift at Ford | 2018-03-02 | Assembly Magazine
Mar 2, 2018 · “The biggest benefit of using upper-body exoskeletons on assembly lines is that workplaces experience increased endurance and reduced fatigue.
[45]
“Exoskeletons reduce absenteeism in logistics by 25 percent”
Sep 13, 2022 · “Our experiences with numerous customers have shown that absences in logistics can be reduced by around 25 percent with exoskeletons,” says Dr ...
[46]
Integration of an exoskeleton robotic system into a digital twin for ...
A novel framework is proposed herein that links an exoskeleton-type robotic system with the digital twin of a collaborative robot in manufacturing processes.
[47]
How Exoskeletons Decrease Injury Rates, Boost Productivity ...
Mar 25, 2025 · With the average cost of a back strain injury at over $67,000 (according to OSHA), that reduction in injuries can lead to significant savings.<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
Powering production and protecting people with exoskeletons - Airbus
Jun 25, 2025 · Discover how Airbus is revolutionising aircraft production with industrial exoskeletons that improve ergonomics and safety for workers.Missing: drilling torque
[49]
Insights into evaluating and using industrial exoskeletons
Industrial exoskeletons represent a future-oriented technology for physically supporting humans during work. Especially in industrial workplaces, ...
[50]
Warrior Web - DARPA
The Warrior Web program aims to develop a lightweight suit to prevent injuries and reduce physical burden by augmenting muscle work.Missing: exoskeletons | Show results with:exoskeletons
[51]
Exoskeletons in the context of soldiers: Current status and future ...
The analogous exoskeleton robots discussed in this paper are designed for human use and constitute an advanced wearable robotic technology. These ...Missing: cybernetic | Show results with:cybernetic
[52]
Special Operations Command leads development of 'Iron Man' suit
May 8, 2014 · SOCOM's goal, Fieldson said, is to have a TALOS prototype within the next year and to have the suit ready for full field testing within five ...
[53]
SOCOM spent $80 million to field a Fallout-style power armor
Jun 12, 2024 · Between 2013 and 2019, SOCOM spent $80 million to field its own Fallout-style power armor under the name TALOS.
[54]
The Incredible HULC: Lockheed Martin unveils exoskeleton ...
Mar 12, 2009 · The HULC is a completely un-tethered, hydraulic-powered anthropomorphic exoskeleton that provides users with the ability to carry 200lb loads for extended ...Missing: specifications | Show results with:specifications
[55]
Lockheed Martin's HULC(TM) Robotic Exoskeleton Enters ...
Jun 30, 2011 · Lockheed Martin's HULC is an un-tethered, battery powered, hydraulic-actuated anthropomorphic exoskeleton that provides users the ability to ...
[56]
Lockheed Martin Secures U.S. Army Exoskeleton Development ...
Nov 29, 2018 · ONYX is a powered, lower-body exoskeleton with artificial intelligence (AI) technology that augments human strength and endurance. The U.S. ...
[57]
Rostec demonstrates operative passive exoskeletons for Russian ...
Aug 24, 2018 · Rostec has demonstrated its new operative passive exoskeletons for the first time to be used for the Russian Army's new-generation of Ratnik combat suit.
[58]
Human Universal Load Carrier (HULC) - Army Technology
Oct 26, 2020 · The HULC exoskeleton operates on lithium polymer batteries. The power-saving feature enables the system to support maximum load even when the ...Missing: specifications | Show results with:specifications
[59]
Knees Of Iron: Lockheed's ONYX Exoskeleton - Breaking Defense
Oct 17, 2019 · ONYX is basically a robotic, motorized knee brace. It doesn't help soldiers leap tall buildings, shrug off gunfire, or carry huge videogame-style guns.
[60]
The US Army's Vision of Soldiers in Exoskeletons Lives On | WIRED
Nov 29, 2024 · The United States Army is taking yet another run at developing a powered exoskeleton to help soldiers carry heavy loads on the battlefield.
[61]
[PDF] A Framework to Assess the Military Ethics of Human Enhancement ...
Jun 9, 2017 · Unequal distribution of cognitive enhancement tools may create unfair advantages or disadvantages among soldiers, and raises questions ...
[62]
More Than Human? The Ethics of Biologically Enhancing Soldiers
Feb 16, 2012 · Our ability to "upgrade" the bodies of soldiers through drugs, implants, and exoskeletons may be upending the ethical norms of war as we've understood them.Missing: unequal | Show results with:unequal
[63]
The exoskeleton expansion: improving walking and running economy
Feb 19, 2020 · Moreover, four exoskeletons improved net metabolic cost during running by 3.9 to 8.0% versus the no device condition (Table 1). Theoretically, ...
[64]
This robotic exoskeleton can help runners sprint faster
Sep 27, 2023 · A wearable exoskeleton can help runners increase their speed by encouraging them to take more steps, allowing them to cover short distances more quickly.
[65]
Hypershell: World's First Outdoor Exoskeleton for Hiking & Daily Use ...
In early January 2025 I finally received my Hypershell X Pro. I find I have much more energy and feel stronger on the steepest. mountains. I have two ...Hypershell X · Hypershell Global · Hypershell EU · What the Hypershell X Can...
[66]
Personalizing exoskeleton assistance while walking in the real world
Oct 12, 2022 · The exoskeleton provided a peak torque of 54 Nm (Fig. 4c), which was about 50% to 75% of the biological ankle torque of participants in this ...
[67]
Hypershell X Ultra AI-Powered Outdoor Exoskeleton for Hiking ...
The world's best outdoor exoskeleton is here. The Hypershell X Ultra delivers 1000W of elite power, a 30km battery range, and is SGS-certified.Missing: consumer | Show results with:consumer
[68]
Hiking Exoskeletons: Like E-Bikes For Your Legs - Forbes
Jun 30, 2025 · Hypershell Hiking Exoskeleton at National Trails Day, Lake Tahoe 2025. Borislav Marinov. Is this the time when wearable robotics takes off ...
[69]
Outcomes of a Multicenter Safety and Efficacy Study of the SuitX ...
Jul 19, 2021 · We believe that the Phoenix exoskeleton, with its increased affordability and improved convenience for everyday usage, will become an important ...
[70]
https://www.ski-mojo.com/en/
[71]
Robotic Exoskeletons from China: Market Analysis and Seller ...
Sep 26, 2025 · Hypershell: Consumer hiking/fitness exoskeletons ($999-1,499). German Bionics: Industrial Apogee Ultra (80 lbs lift assistance). Ekso Bionics: ...
[72]
OpenExo: An open-source modular exoskeleton to augment human ...
Jun 25, 2025 · An open-source modular untethered exoskeleton framework that provides access to all aspects of the design process, including software, electronics, hardware, ...
[73]
NAU researchers release open-source exoskeleton framework
Jun 25, 2025 · Called OpenExo, the open-source system from NAU provides comprehensive instructions for building a single- or multi-joint exoskeleton.
[74]
https://snow-how.de/en/blog/ski-mojo-skiing-longer-again
[75]
Ski-Mojo: Skiing longer (again) - SNOW-HOW
Sep 16, 2025 · This is exactly where the Ski-Mojo comes in – an exoskeleton that acts like invisible support for the legs. It reduces stress on the knees, hips ...
[76]
HYPERSHELL UNVEILS X ULTRA: THE WORLD'S ... - PR Newswire
Sep 7, 2025 · With the Hypershell+ App, users can switch modes, adjust power, and check their status via an Apple Watch, allowing for greater hands-free ...
[77]
ASTM F48 Formation and Standards for Industrial Exoskeletons and ...
This paper provides an overview of a new consensus standards committee for exoskeletons, ASTM International F48, and describes the organization and current ...
[78]
PHL - Product Classification - FDA
A powered exoskeleton is a prescription device, an external, powered, motorized orthosis placed over a paralyzed or weakened lower limb for medical purposes.Missing: consumer | Show results with:consumer
[79]
Lower-limb exoskeletons: Research trends and regulatory ...
Dec 4, 2017 · The present article covers the rapidly evolving area of wearable exoskeletons in a holistic manner, for both medical and non-medical applications.
[80]
Recent developments and challenges of lower extremity exoskeletons
Oct 17, 2015 · Based on the part of the human body the exoskeleton supports, exoskeletons can be classified as upper extremity exoskeletons, lower extremity ...
[81]
A Preliminary Assessment of Legged Mobility Provided by a Lower ...
The powered lower limb exoskeleton enables sit-to-stand transitions, standing, stand-to-walk transitions, walking, walk-to-stand transitions, and stand-to-sit ...
[82]
Initial Outcomes from a Multicenter Study Utilizing the Indego ... - NIH
The Indego consists of 5 modular components: a hip segment, a right and left upper leg segment, and a right and left lower leg segment (Figure 1). Powered ...
[83]
Upper Body Exoskeletons MATE UTA - Schmalz
It relieves strain when working with raised arms and is therefore ideal for static activities and handling loads in high positions.
[84]
A novel passive shoulder exoskeleton for assisting overhead work
Shoulder exoskeletons (SEs) can assist the shoulder joint of workers during overhead work and are usually passive for good portability.
[85]
Sarcos Demonstrates Powered Exosuit That Gives Workers Super ...
Dec 10, 2019 · The Sarcos Guardian XO is a 24-degrees-of-freedom full-body robotic exoskeleton. While wearing it, a human can lift 200 pounds (90 kilograms) while feeling ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s<|separator|>
[86]
Sarcos Robotics Commercializes Guardian XO Full-Body ...
The Guardian XO can help humans lift 35 to 200 pounds and reduce the risk of injury. It is also designed to be worn for an entire shift and can run for up to ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[87]
A quasi-passive leg exoskeleton for load-carrying augmentation
Mar 8, 2007 · A quasi-passive leg exoskeleton is presented for load-carrying augmentation during walking. The exoskeleton has no actuators, only ankle and hip springs and a ...
[88]
A General Purpose Robotic Hand Exoskeleton With Series Elastic ...
In an industrial or military settings, hand exoskeletons are used for teleoperation and fatigue reduction by providing enhanced grip strength [10]. To ...
[89]
8 Degrees of freedom human lower extremity kinematic and ...
Mar 3, 2020 · HLE has a total of eight degrees of freedom (7 active DOF and 1 passive DOF). The hip joint has a total of three degrees of freedom (hip ...Missing: complex | Show results with:complex
[90]
[PDF] De Novo Summary (K131798) 1 ARGO REWALK™ FDA identifies ...
Jun 22, 2013 · The torque is limited to 125Nm (max). • Loss of balance while ... climbing skills in the exoskeleton ReWalk™. Note – stair climbing is ...
[91]
ReWalk 7 Personal Exoskeleton for Spinal Cord Injury - Lifeward
ReWalk 7 Personal Exoskeleton is a wearable robotic exoskeleton that provides powered leg motion people with spinal cord injury (SCI) to stand and walk.Contact Us · For Patients · ReStore Exo-Suit · AlterG Anti-Gravity Systems
[92]
Exoskeleton (Robotics) - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A robotic exoskeleton is a biomechatronic device worn by a human, with a structural mechanism designed to enhance human strength and motor performance.Missing: suits | Show results with:suits<|separator|>
[93]
Suit up with a robot to walk AND run more easily - Wyss Institute
Aug 15, 2019 · The device weighs 5kg in total with more than 90% of its weight located close to the body's center of mass. “This approach to concentrating the ...Missing: exoskeletons | Show results with:exoskeletons
[94]
Effects of a soft robotic exosuit on the quality and speed of ...
Sep 1, 2023 · All components together weigh between 3.8 and 4.1 kg depending on the garment sizes. An additional textile component to provide lateral ...
[95]
Bioservo - Moving beyond limitations
The Carbonhand and Ironhand systems from Bioservo are the worlds first active soft exoskeletons for the hand, designed to improve the health and support ...Bioservo Collaborates with... · Carbonhand · Our Team · Press releasesMissing: hybrid exoskeletons
[96]
A robotic 'Ironhand' could protect factory workers from injuries | CNN
May 12, 2021 · The “Ironhand” glove strengthens the wearer's grip, meaning they don't have to use as much force to perform repetitive manual tasks.Missing: hybrid | Show results with:hybrid
[97]
Mechanical Design and Kinematic Modeling of a Cable-Driven Arm ...
Oct 15, 2019 · Based on their configurations, exoskeletons can be divided into two categories: serial [1,2,3] and parallel [4,5,6]. In serial exoskeletons, the ...
[98]
Design and Analysis of a Novel Shoulder Exoskeleton Based on a ...
May 16, 2023 · 2.2 Configuration Design. Whether the exoskeleton robot is serial or parallel, it comprises the most basic elements such as rods and kinematics.
[99]
A New Parallel Actuated Architecture for Exoskeleton Applications ...
When considering alternatives to the conventional use of serial actuation to augment ball and socket joint motion, parallel actuation may come to mind. A ...
[100]
First powered exoskeleton | Guinness World Records
The first powered full-body exoskeleton was the Hardiman, an experimental 1,500-lb (680-kg) hydraulic lifting system designed and built by General Electric ...
[101]
Exoskeleton Market | Industry Analysis Report, 2033
Oct 13, 2025 · There was a visible shift toward lightweight carbon fiber designs, reducing unit weight by 18% on average compared to 2022 models. The ...
[102]
A SERIES ELASTIC ACTUATOR DESIGN AND CONTROL IN ... - NIH
This work describes the detailed design of the actuator followed by performance tests using a simple PD controller on the integrated robotic exoskeleton ...Missing: electric | Show results with:electric
[103]
Novel Design on Knee Exoskeleton with Compliant Actuator for Post ...
Dec 30, 2024 · The exoskeleton comprises a leg splint, thigh splint, and an actuator, incorporating a series elastic actuator (SEA) to enhance torque density ...
[104]
Review of Current Spinal Robotic Orthoses - PMC - NIH
The exoskeleton is actuated via bidirectional linear hydraulic cylinders. BLEEX consumes an average of 1143 W of hydraulic power during level-ground walking ...
[105]
Review on Portable-Powered Lower Limb Exoskeletons - PMC - NIH
Compared to the previous prototype, the weight of the hydraulic actuator was reduced by approximately 40%, while the power density increased by nearly 1.6 times ...
[106]
Tracking Control for a Lower Extremity Exoskeleton Based on ... - NIH
Aug 9, 2023 · It utilizes hydraulic drive technology, which has advantages such as high power density, fast response speed, and strong load-bearing capacity.
[107]
Design and Preliminary Assessment of a Passive Elastic Leg ... - NIH
We created a completely passive leg exoskeleton, consisting of counteracting springs ... return that energy back to the user as they recoil. Hence, with an ...
[108]
A Review of Wearable Back-Support Exoskeletons for Preventing ...
This paper divides wearable lumbar assistive exoskeletons into powered, unpowered, and quasi-passive types, systematically reviews the research status of each ...
[109]
Wearable Soft Robots: Case Study of Using Shape Memory Alloys in ...
Mar 11, 2025 · This paper provides a comprehensive review of SMA-based wearable devices for both upper- and lower-limb rehabilitation.
[110]
Bioinspired Stimuli-Responsive Materials for Soft Actuators - PMC
In this review, we will discuss recent advances in biomimetic stimuli-responsive materials that are instrumental for soft actuators.3.1. Electroactive Polymers · 3.2. Magnetic Soft... · 3.3. Stimuli-Responsive...
[111]
Systematic Review on Wearable Lower Extremity Robotic ...
Oct 28, 2022 · Lower extremity robotic exoskeletons (LEEX) can not only improve the ability of the human body but also provide healing treatment for people ...<|separator|>
[112]
Voluntary control of wearable robotic exoskeletons by patients with ...
The robotic exoskeleton was powered by a lithium-ion battery with five-hour autonomy. Human participants. We recruited four healthy subjects along with three ...
[113]
Comparison of Efficacy of Lokomat and Wearable Exoskeleton ... - NIH
Apr 13, 2022 · As a typical stationary exoskeleton-type device, Lokomat guided the patient's limbs and simulated a symmetrical bilateral gait (48). It has ...Missing: tethered | Show results with:tethered
[114]
Exercise training using hybrid assistive limb (HAL) lumbar type ... - NIH
Jun 12, 2021 · In addition, the lumbar type HAL is portable and able to assist voluntary joint motion during not only walking but also sit-to-stand and lumbar ...
[115]
Industrial exoskeletons from bench to field: Human-machine ... - NIH
Nov 21, 2022 · The weight of the exoskeletons ranges from about 5 kg (ShoulderX) to 2 kg (Levitate AirFrame). The exoskeletons are designed to reduce the load ...Missing: mitigation | Show results with:mitigation
[116]
[PDF] Simulation of Energy Regeneration in Human Locomotion ... - bioRxiv
Jun 17, 2022 · Most robotic lower-limb exoskeletons provide only 1-5 hours of maximum battery-powered runtime [1]. Onboard portable power has often been ...Missing: stationary | Show results with:stationary
[117]
Hierarchical Classification of Subject-Cooperative Control Strategies ...
Jul 22, 2023 · This work aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the control strategies used in lower limb exoskeletons, focusing on subject cooperation.
[118]
[PDF] Semi-Autonomous Control of an Exoskeleton using Computer Vision
Nov 17, 2022 · A semi-autonomous control scheme with an adaptive level of autonomy was hence proposed such that the user will always have a sense of con- trol.
[119]
Comparison of sEMG Onset Detection Methods for Occupational ...
Jan 25, 2024 · Due to the electromechanical delay, there is a time span of 20–80 ms between the rise of sEMG and measurable generation of muscular force [19].
[120]
Gait phase recognition of children with cerebral palsy via deep ...
Sep 10, 2025 · The proposed SDA-LSTM achieved 97.83% accuracy, surpassing SVM (94.68%) by 3.15 percentage points, RF (96.05%) by 1.78 percentage points, and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[121]
Series-elastic actuator with two degree-of-freedom PID control ... - NIH
Oct 16, 2023 · This article presents the design, development, and testing of a novel SEA with high force density for powered exoskeletons, as well as the use of a two degree- ...
[122]
Non-invasive control interfaces for intention detection in active ...
Dec 17, 2014 · This paper presents a comprehensive review focused on non-invasive control interfaces used to operate active movement-assistive devices.
[123]
[PDF] Autonomous and portable soft exosuit for hip extension assistance ...
Abstract— We present an autonomous and portable hip-only soft exosuit, for augmenting human walking and running that assists hip extension by delivering ...
[124]
How can ISO 13482:2014 account for the ethical and social ...
However, ISO 13482:2014 stands out as the sole standard specifically addressing lower-limb exoskeletons and acting as a European harmonized standard. European ...
[125]
Relevance of hazards in exoskeleton applications: a survey-based ...
May 31, 2023 · Although ISO 13482:2014 covers many uses of the exoskeleton as personal care robots, it doesn't cover their application as medical devices.
[126]
(PDF) Fundamentals of ergonomic exoskeleton robots - ResearchGate
ThesisPDF Available. Fundamentals of ergonomic exoskeleton robots. May 2008. Thesis for: Ph.D. Advisor: Prof. F.C.T. van der Helm, Prof. Gerd Hirzinger. Authors ...
[127]
[PDF] Biomechanical Considerations in the Design of Lower Limb ...
Abstract— This paper presents an analysis of the human biomechanical considerations related to the development of lower limb exoskeletons.
[128]
Quantification of Comfort for the Development of Binding Parts in a ...
Feb 16, 2023 · In Experiment 2, cuff pressures of 10–20 kPa were applied to the thigh, and the tissue oxygen saturation and the skin temperature were measured.
[129]
Evaluation of thermal properties and thermoregulatory impacts of ...
Highlights · Thermal manikin is used to measure the thermal properties of exosuits. · Improved exosuit design reduces thermal and evaporative resistances.Missing: pressure regulation
[130]
Ergonomics of exoskeletons: Subjective performance metrics
Insufficient relevant content. The provided URL (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5354029) does not contain accessible text or specific details about the use of NASA-TLX in evaluating exoskeleton ergonomics, subjective performance metrics, cognitive load, or findings on comfort or mental demand based on the available information.
[131]
Differential effect of three types of exoskeletons and handling height ...
The use of the HAPO FRONT decreased global muscular activity by 5,6% and deltoid activity by 10,7%, exoskeletons reduced perceived effort, from 42% to 25%.
[132]
Optimal design of a lower limb exoskeleton or orthosis
An actuator exerts a force between these components in order to reduce reactive shear stress on the skin. In other words, the forces are generally applied in a ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[133]
[PDF] Three-Dimensional Anthropometric Data for Exoskeleton and ...
Integrating 3D anthro into exoskeleton design and fitting of exoskeletons will improve fit, comfort and performance efficacy.
[134]
[PDF] Designing and Prototyping a Smart Upper-Limb Exoskeleton for ...
May 23, 2025 · Anthropometric and 3D body scanning techniques were employed to customize the design for diverse body sizes and genders, ensuring user ...
[135]
3D Scanning of the Forearm for Orthosis and HMI Applications
Apr 13, 2021 · This paper presents a data-driven statistical forearm surface model for designing a forearm orthosis in exoskeleton applications.
[136]
CTi® Custom | Custom Knee Brace | Ossur.com
CTi Custom has a rigid carbon-fiber frame, provides total knee ligament support, custom fit, Accutrac hinges, and is custom-made with various options.
[137]
1 and only Accurate Measurement Software for Exoskeleton design
Rating 4.5/4.9 (105) Generating accurate measurements from a 3D body scan is enabling several interesting applications. To make these ready for the mass market, 3D Measure Up body ...
[138]
Design and evaluation of a modular lower limb exoskeleton for ...
This feature allows the exoskeleton to be adapted to assist the movement of one or more patient joints. The actuation of the exoskeleton is also modular, and ...
[139]
Design and Optimization Analysis of an Adaptive Knee Exoskeleton
Sep 20, 2024 · In the design of some knee exoskeletons, researchers have simplified the human knee joint into a 1 degree of freedom (DOF) revolute joint, e.g. ...2 Wearable Adaptive Knee... · 2.3 Adaptive Knee... · 3 Kinematic Analysis<|control11|><|separator|>
[140]
Design of a Compact Variable Stiffness Joint for Modular Lower ...
This paper presents the mechanical design and control strategy of a compact variable stiffness joint mechanism for modular lower limb assistive exoskeletons.
[141]
Breaking Barriers in Mobility: A Novel Exoskeleton for Overweight ...
Apr 10, 2024 · Exoskeleton technology offers a promising solution to enhance mobility and physical activity for individuals with mobility impairments, including overweight ...Missing: amputees | Show results with:amputees<|separator|>
[142]
Influence Of Customization On Familiarization Of Two ... - RESNA
The process of fitting the exoskeleton was by taking measurements of the participant (e.g., thigh length and circumference, etc.) in order to select the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[143]
[PDF] Test Methods for Exoskeletons – Lessons Learned from Industrial ...
As humans vary broadly in size and shape, adapting exoskeletons to them is complex, creating a challenge to manufacturers and users to properly fit these ...
[144]
Effectively Quantifying the Performance of Lower-Limb Exoskeletons ...
The result from our study suggests that torque from the exoskeleton is not entirely being transferred to the individual, which is quite probable due to the non ...Missing: outcomes | Show results with:outcomes<|control11|><|separator|>
[145]
Biomechanical evaluation of a new passive back support exoskeleton
May 22, 2020 · While lifting, the exoskeleton reduced the peak compression force, on average, by 14%. Lifting technique did not modify the effect of the ...
[146]
Selecting Suitable Battery Technologies for Untethered Robot - MDPI
Untethered robots carry their own power supply in the form of a battery pack, which has a crucial impact on the robot's performance.
[147]
420Wh/kg Solid-State Lipo Battery For UAVS - DroneX 2025
Our solid-state lithium batteries are built with cutting-edge technology, achieving an impressive energy density of up to 420 Wh/kg.
[148]
HULC robotic exoskeleton to get fuel-cell Power Supply - New Atlas
Jan 21, 2010 · HULC, the Lockheed Martin (LM) powered robotic exoskeleton is being extended in its range to support 72+ hour extended missions.Missing: solid- | Show results with:solid-
[149]
Quasi-Direct Drive Actuation for a Lightweight Hip Exoskeleton ... - NIH
We create a lightweight bilateral hip exoskeleton to reduce joint loadings during normal activities, including walking and squatting.
[150]
[PDF] Architecture and Hydraulics of a Lower Extremity Exoskeleton
ACTUATOR SELECTION AND SIZING. Hydraulic actuators have high specific power (ratio of actuator power to actuator weight), and thus are the smallest actuation ...
[151]
Characterization of pneumatic muscle actuators and their ...
Hydraulic actuators provide an excellent power-to-weight ratio, but hydraulic fluid leakages are a substantial concern in medically sterile environments [17].
[152]
Characterizing the relationship between peak assistance torque and ...
May 12, 2022 · Peak exoskeleton power was calculated as the maximum over an average gait cycle of the product of torque and ankle angular velocity. All ...
[153]
A Wearable Lower Limb Exoskeleton: Reducing the Energy Cost of ...
Jun 6, 2022 · The exoskeleton uses a lithium battery as the power source, adopts a hydraulic driving device, and relies on plantar pressure and powered ...
[154]
https://heyupnow.com/blogs/heyup-trend-insight-lab/emerging-trends-in-wearable-exoskeleton-technology-made-simple-for-you
[155]
Emerging Trends in Wearable Exoskeleton Technology (2025)
Aug 26, 2025 · Durability: Pick IP-rated devices for rugged environments. Needs Matching: Choose features based on your activity—rehab, lifting, hiking, etc.Missing: ruggedness | Show results with:ruggedness
[156]
Toward an active exoskeleton with full energy autonomy - Frontiers
Jun 8, 2025 · This study presents a novel solution to this challenge: a design that enables the generation of electricity during motions where the muscles work as brakes and ...Missing: trade- runtime
[157]
Advancements in Sensor Technologies and Control Strategies for ...
In the following review, a comprehensive overview of research papers on lower-limb exoskeletons is provided, detailing the types of sensors and monitoring ...
[158]
From sensing to control of lower limb exoskeleton: a systematic review
This paper investigated the literature regarding the sensing and control of lower limb exoskeletons in recent years and studied the influences of different ...
[159]
Review of control strategies for lower-limb exoskeletons to assist gait
The goal of this paper is to review and classify these control strategies, that determine how these devices interact with the user.
[160]
[PDF] Active-Impedance Control of a Lower-Limb Assistive Exoskeleton
Abstract— We propose a novel control method for lower-limb assist that produces a virtual modification of the mechanical impedance of the human limbs.
[161]
Review of adaptive control for stroke lower limb exoskeleton ... - NIH
Jul 3, 2023 · This review introduces traditional rehabilitation assessment methods, explores the possibility of lower limb exoskeleton robots combining sensors and ...
[162]
Vibrotactile Feedback for Improving Standing Balance - Frontiers
Feb 20, 2020 · The results show that synchronized vibrotactile feedback reduces significantly the sway amplitude while increasing the frequency in anterior- ...
[163]
A Prospective Study of Haptic Feedback Method on a Lower ...
Jul 24, 2021 · This study explores using haptic feedback (vibration) on a lower-extremity exoskeleton to inform wearers of their walking state, especially for ...
[164]
Real-Time Human Activity Recognition with IMU and Encoder ... - NIH
Dec 10, 2022 · This work implements a real-time activity recognition system based on the activity signals of an inertial measurement unit (IMU) and a pair of rotary encoders.
[165]
Machine Learning-Based Fatigue Level Prediction for Exoskeleton ...
May 26, 2024 · For instance, one study demonstrated accuracy up to ~95% using polynomial kernel-based SVM in predicting low and high fatigue during repetitive ...
[166]
Sensor-Driven Control Strategies for Post-Stroke Shoulder ...
Sep 28, 2025 · Section IV presents an overview of sensor modalities used in shoulder exoskeletons, such as EMG, EEG, force/torque sensors, IMUs, and multimodal ...
[167]
[PDF] Improving the Accuracy of Wearable Sensors for Human Locomotion ...
In the second step of the calibration procedure, regression models were applied to reduce drift and other systematic errors in the raw estimates of the hip ...
[168]
A survey of sensor fusion methods in wearable robotics
This paper presents a review of existing sensor fusion methods for wearable robots, both stationary ones such as rehabilitation exoskeletons and portable ones.A Survey Of Sensor Fusion... · Unimodal Sensor Fusion · Multimodal Sensor Fusion
[169]
Soft Exoskeletons: Development, Requirements, and Challenges of ...
Jul 19, 2021 · In this article, various investigations on soft exoskeletons are presented and their functional and structural characteristics are analyzed.
[170]
[PDF] Design and Mechanical Performance Analysis of Lower Extremity ...
Aug 16, 2024 · The material of the main part of the exoskeleton device is aluminum alloy 7075, which has high hardness, ... yield strength of 455 MPa. At ...
[171]
Lightweight Yet High Stiffness LCF50 PP Composites For ...
Lightweight yet High Stiffness LCF50 PP Composites for Exoskeleton Robots. LCF50 PP Composites Features: 1. Low Density (1.2 g/cm²) – Ultra-lightweight for ...
[172]
Physiological and kinematic effects of a soft exosuit on arm ...
Feb 22, 2019 · Previous studies confirm that the initial disruption of natural kinematics of movement, often seen when one first wears an assistive robotic ...
[173]
Fabrication of Soft Robotics by Additive Manufacturing
Currently, varying shore hardness of TPU filament is available off-the-shelf, and various works on 3D printing of soft grippers, joints, and interface design ...
[174]
[PDF] Effect of anodized coatings on fatigue strength in aluminum alloy
Figure 12 shows the relationship between total strain and number of cycles to failure of anodized coating specimens for the repeated tensile fatigue testing.Missing: exoskeletons MIL- STD- 810
[175]
Custom Machined Exoskeletons in Rehabilitation Robotics (with Case)
Nov 17, 2023 · So most of these exoskeleton parts need to be post-treated to make them aesthetically pleasing and corrosion resistant. For aluminum exoskeleton ...
[176]
Environmental testing ensures more than just safety | SGS Denmark
Hypershell Receives SGS Premium Performance Mark for its Outdoor Powered Exoskeleton. This certification marks the expansion of our services into the fast ...
[177]
Wear-resistant 3D printing polymers | Application examples - Igus
Finger joints in an exoskeleton · Rocket module for measuring the movement and ... 50% cost reduction, delivery within a few days, improved sliding ...
[178]
Integrating Sustainable Materials in Exoskeleton Development
Exoskeletons' ecological footprint is quantified with the aid of life cycle assessments and environmental impact analyses, which also point up areas for ...
[179]
[PDF] Safety Hazards Exoskeletons
Sep 22, 2022 · Potential risks include friction, joint hyperextension, unintended contact, collision, vibration, overexertion, worker instability, and ...
[180]
Risk management and regulations for lower limb medical ...
May 9, 2017 · We examined risk management methods in the medical exoskeleton industry by first reviewing current industrial standards from the International ...
[181]
Powered Exoskeleton: Revolutionizing Mobility & Rehabilitation
Rating 5.0 (130) Oct 2, 2025 · Third-party verified MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) ratings above 10,000 operational hours indicate reliable hardware. What Are the Best ...
[182]
Fault Detection, Isolation and Reconfiguration of Four-Bar ... - MDPI
This system enables the exoskeleton to continue functioning even if one of the actuators experiences a fault, ensuring user safety and continuous operation. For ...
[183]
[PDF] Ethical, Legal and Social Concerns Relating to Exoskeletons
ABSTRACT. Exoskeletons, i.e., wearable robotics, are designed and built to amplify human strength and agility. In many cases, their purpose.Missing: unequal | Show results with:unequal
[184]
An ethical assessment of powered exoskeletons: Implications from ...
Jul 18, 2024 · We argue that reasonable optimism for such technologies needs to be tempered by sufficient ethical assessment to identify and address barriers to research, ...Missing: unequal | Show results with:unequal
[185]
How Much Does an Exoskeleton Cost?
Exoskeleton costs range from $20,000 (Hal 5) to $100,000+ (Ekso), with Indego at $80,000 and ReWalk at $77,000. Honda Walking Assist is $375 monthly.
[186]
FDA Says it Will Regulate Robotic Exoskeletons - RAPS
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has confirmed it will regulate all powered exoskeletons—a type of device intended to help paralyzed patients ...
[187]
Relevance of hazards in exoskeleton applications: a survey-based ...
May 31, 2023 · Our results identified a list of relevant hazards for exoskeletons. Among them, misalignments and unintended device motion were perceived as key ...
[188]
Human-in-the-Loop Optimization of Knee Exoskeleton Assistance ...
This study presents a HITL control for a knee exoskeleton using a CMA-ES algorithm to minimize the users' physical effort.
[189]
Distribution of Responsibility During the Usage of AI-Based ... - arXiv
Oct 22, 2024 · The ethical issues concerning the AI-based exoskeletons used in healthcare have already been studied literally rather than technically.
[190]
US420179A - Apparatus for facilitating walking - Google Patents
APPARATUS FOR FACILITATING WALKING, RUNNING, AND JUMPING. No. 420,179. Patented Jan. 28,. 1890'. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE. NICHOLAS YAGN, OF ST. PETERSBURG, ...Missing: Nikolai pedal-
[191]
1890 - Assisted-walking Device - Nicholas Yagn (Russian)
Oct 14, 2010 · Nicholas Yagn, of St.Petersburg, Russia, designed a set of walking, jumping, and running assisted apparatus from 1889-1890.
[192]
9 Must-Know Facts About Exoskeleton Suits - Ekso Bionics
Nov 9, 2022 · Full body – A full body exoskeleton is an exosuit that is used for strength augmentation in the military and rehabilitation.Missing: end- effectors integration
[193]
The Many Futuristic Predictions of H.G. Wells That Came True
Sep 21, 2016 · Science fiction pioneer HG Wells conjured some futuristic visions that haven't (yet) come true: a machine that travels back in time, a man who turns invisible, ...
[194]
When Were Active Exoskeletons actually Born? - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · 1: Exoskeleton evolution giant leaf springs to assist Russian soldiers in jumping higher and running faster (Fig. ... load lifting, load carrying, ...
[195]
Exoskeletons | Encyclopedia MDPI
Two of the most antique exoskeletons date back to the 19th century in the former Russian Empire by Nicholas Yagn. These devices were called “apparatus for ...Missing: Nikolai pedal-
[196]
Improving the Human Machine - Physical Review Link Manager
Jun 25, 2021 · One of the earliest records of an exoskeleton is an 1890 patent for an “apparatus for facilitating walking, running, and jumping,” by Nicholas ...Missing: Nikolai pedal-
[197]
Paris Had a Moving Sidewalk in 1900, and a Thomas Edison Film ...
Mar 9, 2020 · The innovation of the moving sidewalk demonstrated at the Paris Exposition of 1900 (previously seen here on Open Culture when we featured ...
[198]
[PDF] EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION OF THE MAN AMPLIFIER ... - DTIC
'The Man Amplifier, conceived by Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc. (CAL), is an exoskeleton employing powered joints that is worn by a man to augment or ...Missing: Vought | Show results with:Vought<|separator|>
[199]
Exoskeleton History - EduExo
The first exoskeletons for gait assistance were developed at the end of the 1960s at the Mihajlo Pupin Institute Serbia, and in the early 1970s at the ...
[200]
[PDF] Hardiman I Prototype for Machine Augmentation of Human ... - DTIC
Aug 31, 1971 · "The exoskeleton, called 'Hardiman. ' mimics the movements of its wearer, presenting a literal union of man and machine. Thus, the human ...Missing: GE | Show results with:GE
[201]
Systematic Review of Exoskeletons towards a General ... - MDPI
Dec 24, 2020 · This systematic review explains the precedents of the exoskeletons and gives a general perspective on their general present-day use.
[202]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5722001/
[203]
FDA clears first robotic exoskeleton for spinal cord injury patients
Jun 27, 2014 · In 2012, Ekso Bionics created a self-contained, full-body robotic walking suit with mechanical braces and electronic crutches. The company has ...
[204]
The world's first Wearable Cyborg "HAL" - CYBERDYNE
HAL [Hybrid Assistive Limb] is the world's first * technology that improves, supports, enhances and regenerates the wearer's physical functions according to ...Missing: portable | Show results with:portable
[205]
Functional Outcome of Neurologic-Controlled HAL-Exoskeletal ... - NIH
The neurologically controlled HAL Robot Suit (Cyberdyne, Inc) is an exoskeleton with a patient size-adjustable frame and robotic actuators that attach to the ...
[206]
SuperFlex's lightweight exosuit will put a spring in your step - WIRED
May 3, 2016 · Originally developed for DARPA's Warrior Web programme to help US soldiers carry heavy loads over long distances, SuperFlex is made from a soft ...
[207]
AI and Exoskeletons Team Up to Transform Human Performance on ...
Jun 15, 2024 · Researchers have developed an AI-enhanced controller for exoskeletons that learns to support various movements such as walking and running without individual ...<|separator|>
[208]
Exoskeleton Market Size, Share & Trends, 2025 To 2030
The global Exoskeleton Market was valued at USD 0.45 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow from USD 0.56 billion in 2025 to USD 2.03 billion by 2030, at a ...
[209]
Exoskeleton Companies - Top Company List - Mordor Intelligence
Exoskeleton Company List · CYBERDYNE Inc. · Ekso Bionics · Ottobock · Parker Hannifin · Sarcos Technology & Robotics Corp. · ReWalk Robotics · BIONIK Laboratories Corp ...
[210]
Media - Lockheed Martin - Releases
ONYX is a powered, lower-body exoskeleton with artificial intelligence technology that augments human strength and endurance. From: Lockheed Martin Secures U.S. ...
[211]
Buy Hypershell X Series: Advanced Exoskeleton Technology
In stock Rating 4.7 (373) Ultimate performance for extreme expeditions. Regular price: US$1,999.00.
[212]
Charting the Exoskeleton Industry: A Comprehensive Insight into ...
The situation presses the industrial sector towards a paradigm shift in its traditional practices promoting social sustainability. Exoskeletons, devices ...
[213]
Exoskeleton Market Size & Growth Trends Analysis 2030
Jun 13, 2025 · The Exoskeleton Market is expected to reach USD 0.57 billion in 2025 and grow at a CAGR of 21.19% to reach USD 1.48 billion by 2030.
[214]
Powered Armor (or Powered Suit) by Robert Heinlein from Starship ...
The secret lies in negative feedback and amplification. Technovelgy from Starship Troopers, by Robert Heinlein. Published by G.P. Putnam's Sons in 1959
[215]
A History of Iron Men: Science Fiction's 5 Most Iconic Exoskeletons
Apr 8, 2010 · Mobile Infantry Powered Armor /// Starship Troopers (1959) ///. The exoskeleton appears to have been born in 1937, in E.E. "Doc" Smith's series ...
[216]
Powered Exoskeletons in Cinema: Iron Man
Jul 31, 2016 · Iron Man is one example of that transformation; packaging the ideals of the conservative elite in a way that appeals to the modern masses. Part ...
[217]
How They Built the Battle Exosuits for Edge of Tomorrow
Apr 19, 2021 · The exosuits in Edge of Tomorrow are cumbersome, unrefined, and hulking; a hastily-made product of a military force scrambling to match a superior enemy.
[218]
Building Edge of Tomorrow's Armored ExoSuits - The Credits
Jun 3, 2014 · Create an articulated armored suit capable of protecting a soldier's body while delivering a massive amount of firepower from weapons mounted to the carapace.
[219]
MJOLNIR Powered Assault Armor - Halopedia, the Halo wiki
Oct 28, 2025 · A technologically advanced combat exoskeleton system designed to vastly improve the strength, speed, agility, reflexes, and durability of a Spartan ...
[220]
Powered Armor - TV Tropes
The powered armor is built around an exoskeleton combined with a supplemental system that acts as artificial muscle, mimicking the wearer's own movements in a ...
[221]
Powered Exoskeletons in Cinema: Aliens (1986) - Literatastrophe
Jul 7, 2015 · It's too early to say for certain, but I can say that Aliens makes it work. Just because the film doesn't devote a lot of time to the Power ...
[222]
Armored Suit | Ghost in the Shell Wiki - Fandom
Arm Suits also known as Armored Suits are heavily-armored powered exoskeletons. The Type 1 Armored Suit was a later slave model, known for its capacity of ...
[223]
Exoskeleton Strength - The New York Times
Dec 12, 2004 · The sci-fi author Robert Heinlein had the idea first: in his 1959 novel, "Starship Troopers," soldiers stepped into suits of powered armor ...<|separator|>
[224]
Iron Man to Batman: The future of soldier suits - BBC
Jan 20, 2013 · When the first Iron Man movie was released in 2008, defense companies rushed to capitalise on the sudden public interest in exoskeletons ...
[225]
Inventions for assistive robotics increased more than 20-fold in just ...
Dec 3, 2024 · The number of inventions in the field of assistive robotics has increased more than 20-fold over the two decades since 2000, with a peak of ...
[226]
The Real Iron Man: XOS Exoskeleton - Core77
Jun 13, 2008 · The first patent for a mechanical suit appeared in 1890, but it wasn't until 2000, when Darpa began a seven-year, $75-million program called ...
[227]
The inside story behind the Pentagon's quest for a real-life 'Iron Man ...
May 6, 2020 · The history of the Tactical Assault Light Operator Suit and the 'Iron Man' prototypes that came before reveals the fascination with Sci-Fi.
[228]
The Hidden Burden of Exoskeletons for the Disabled - The Atlantic
Aug 7, 2015 · The first patent for a powered exoskeleton, filed by a Russian inventor named Nicholas Yagn, was approved on January 28, 1890. Yagn's ...Missing: Nikolai pedal-
[229]
A One-Week Diary Study with Exoskeleton Users at the Workplace
Oct 7, 2024 · Workers who were named “cyborg” or a “Robocop” when wearing the exoskeleton differed in how they perceived these comments, with some ...
[230]
Am I still human? Wearing an exoskeleton impacts self-perceptions ...
Our study explored how real-world use of a robotic exoskeleton affects a wearer's mechanistic dehumanization and perceived attractiveness of the self.
[231]
(PDF) REVIEW: Fixed: The Science/Fiction of Human Enhancement
Aug 8, 2025 · This article describes some of the technical, social, and ethical aspects of exoskeletons in a disabilities context. The paper's main ...
[232]
[PDF] Utilizing Science Fiction to Visualize Ethical Issues ... - Drew University
With this incredible scientific breakthrough comes issues pertaining to autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice, which are described below. However, ...