Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Jatropha

Jatropha is a genus of approximately 176 species of flowering plants in the family Euphorbiaceae, primarily consisting of shrubs and small trees that are succulent in habit and native to tropical and subtropical regions, especially the Americas, with additional species occurring in Africa, Madagascar, and parts of Asia.^[1]^[2] The plants typically produce separate male and female flowers and are adapted to arid and semi-arid environments, though many require more water and fertile soil than initially assumed for commercial cultivation.^[3] The genus gained prominence in the early 2000s through Jatropha curcas, promoted as a drought-resistant crop for biodiesel production due to its seeds' high oil content—up to 40%—and non-interference with food crops when grown on marginal lands.^[4] However, widespread initiatives collapsed due to consistently low seed yields, higher-than-expected water and nutrient demands, difficulties in processing toxic byproducts, and economic unviability, rendering it a cautionary example of overhyped biofuels.^[5]^[6]^[7] While some Jatropha species exhibit pharmacological potential, including antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory compounds derived from secondary metabolites, the genus is characterized by significant toxicity across parts like seeds, leaves, and latex, containing phorbol esters and lectins such as curcin that cause gastrointestinal distress, organ damage, and even death in animals and humans upon ingestion.^[2]^[8]^[9] Certain species, like J. integerrima and J. multifida, are cultivated as ornamentals for their vibrant flowers and foliage in tropical gardens, though their handling requires caution due to irritant sap.^[10]^[11]

Taxonomy and Description

Genus Overview

The genus Jatropha belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and encompasses approximately 175 species of flowering plants, ranging from succulent herbs to shrubs and trees.^[2] These plants are predominantly native to tropical America, with a smaller number occurring naturally in regions of Africa and Asia, though many species have achieved pantropical distribution through human introduction.^[12] ^[1] The etymology of Jatropha originates from the Greek terms iatros (physician) and trophē (nourishment), alluding to the historical application of certain species in traditional medicine despite their toxicity.^[13] Morphologically, Jatropha species typically feature milky latex, simple alternate leaves, and unisexual flowers arranged in cymes, with monoecious or dioecious inflorescences.^[14] Fruits are capsular, containing seeds rich in oils in some taxa, such as J. curcas.^[9] Many species produce phorbol esters and other toxic diterpenes, rendering them hazardous if ingested, which has constrained broader utilization beyond specialized applications like biofuel extraction from non-edible seeds.^[2] The genus exhibits adaptability to arid and semi-arid environments, contributing to its ecological and economic interest in marginal lands.^[12]

Morphological Characteristics

Species of the genus Jatropha exhibit diverse growth habits, ranging from herbs and subshrubs to shrubs and trees, typically perennial and reaching heights of 0.5 to 10 meters.^[14] Most species are monoecious, though some are dioecious, with stems that vary from herbaceous and rubbery-succulent to woody or woody-succulent forms.^[14] Stems often bear unbranched hairs, which may be glandular, or lack indumentum entirely, and produce latex that ranges in color from colorless and cloudy-whitish to yellow or red.^[14] Leaves in Jatropha are generally alternate, though sometimes fascicled, simple, and either deciduous or persistent.^[14] Blade morphology includes unlobed or palmately lobed forms with margins that are entire, serrate, or dentate; venation is pinnate or palmate.^[14] Stipules may be absent or present, and petioles are typically present but occasionally absent.^[14] Inflorescences are unisexual or bisexual flowers arranged in axillary or terminal cymes, fascicles, or solitary, with both staminate and pistillate flowers sharing five sepals and five petals colored white, greenish yellow, pink, red, or purple.^[14] Staminate flowers feature 6–10 stamens, while pistillate flowers have 1–3 carpels and (1–)3 styles.^[14] Fruits develop as capsules that are somewhat fleshy and may dehisce tardily or explosively.^[14] Seeds are ellipsoid to globose, with a caruncle that is either present (sometimes rudimentary) or absent.^[14] The base chromosome number for the genus is x = 11.^[14]

Distribution and Habitat

The genus Jatropha encompasses approximately 170 species of shrubs and small trees, with the majority native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, ranging from Mexico southward through Central America to northern South America, including countries such as Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, and Paraguay.^[15]^[16] A smaller number of species occur naturally in the Old World tropics, contributing to a pantropical distribution overall, though introductions and naturalization have expanded ranges beyond native areas.^[17] Native habitats for Jatropha species are predominantly seasonally dry ecosystems, including savannas, thorn scrub forests, and semi-arid grasslands such as the Brazilian cerrado and caatinga formations, where plants tolerate drought, poor soils, and periodic water scarcity.^[18] For instance, J. curcas, one of the most studied species, thrives in disturbed areas and marginal lands with low fertility, exhibiting resilience to aridity and capable of growing in regions receiving as little as 250-1,200 mm of annual rainfall.^[19] Similarly, J. gossypiifolia favors tropical scrub and riparian zones in its American origin but has adapted to a wide array of introduced tropical environments.^[18] Ecological preferences emphasize adaptation to tropical climates with temperatures rarely below 0°C, though some species exhibit deciduous behavior in drier seasons to conserve resources.^[19] These habitats often feature sandy or rocky soils with low nutrient content, underscoring the genus's utility in erosion control and reclamation of degraded lands, albeit with risks of invasiveness in non-native settings.^[15]

Historical Development

Etymology and Early Recognition

The genus name Jatropha originates from Ancient Greek iatros (ἰατρός), meaning "physician" or "doctor," and trophē (τροφή), meaning "nourishment" or "food," a designation reflecting the plant's longstanding association with medicinal applications in traditional practices, even as its seeds and sap contain toxic phorbol esters that render them hazardous if ingested without preparation.^[20]^[21] This etymological choice underscores an early recognition of potential therapeutic value derived from empirical observations of its purgative and anti-inflammatory effects in controlled doses, as noted in pre-modern pharmacopeias.^[9] Carl Linnaeus formally established the genus Jatropha within the family Euphorbiaceae in his Genera Plantarum published in 1737, marking the first systematic botanical classification of its species based on morphological traits such as milky latex, alternate leaves, and monoecious or dioecious inflorescences.^[20] Linnaeus expanded on this in Species Plantarum (1753), providing binomial nomenclature for key species like J. curcas, drawing from herbarium specimens and traveler accounts from the Americas where the plants were observed growing wild in arid and semi-arid habitats.^[15] Prior to Linnaean taxonomy, European explorers and physicians, including Portuguese botanist Garcia de Orta in the mid-16th century, had documented similar plants under vernacular names like "purgaeminha" in colonial texts, recognizing their emetic properties from indigenous Central American knowledge but without standardized generic classification.^[15] This early documentation, primarily from missionary and trade records, highlighted Jatropha's role as a hedge plant and rudimentary purgative, though its toxicity limited widespread adoption beyond localized remedies.^[22]

Traditional Uses in Indigenous Cultures

In Mesoamerican indigenous cultures, particularly among the Maya, the latex of Jatropha curcas has been applied topically to treat skin conditions such as eruptions, pimples, and smallpox scars, leveraging its purported regenerative properties.^[23] Among Totonac and Huastecan Native Mexican groups, seeds of the plant are processed and incorporated into traditional food preparations, reflecting long-standing ethnobotanical knowledge despite the inherent toxicity of raw seeds requiring detoxification methods like roasting or leaching.^[24] In African indigenous communities, where J. curcas was adopted post-introduction, various tribes have employed the plant in folk remedies. Ethnobotanical surveys in Nigeria document its use by local groups for ailments including fever, cough, inflammation, ulcers, jaundice, piles, diarrhea, dysentery, rheumatism, and as an anthelmintic, typically via decoctions or poultices of leaves, bark, or roots.^[25] In Tanzania's Kagera region, communities prepare bark decoctions to treat ulcers and use leaf infusions as purgatives.^[26] West African tribes similarly rely on it for folklore treatments of infections and pain, often utilizing latex or crushed parts.^[27] Other Jatropha species exhibit parallel traditional applications in indigenous American contexts. For J. gossypiifolia, Amazonian and Caatinga groups in Brazil apply leaf decoctions or crushed preparations topically for wound healing, headaches, toothaches, and inflammation, while roots serve as antidiarrheals and snakebite antidotes; latex addresses bleeding and pain.^[9] These uses, spanning leaves, roots, seeds, and latex, underscore the genus's role in pre-colonial and persisting folk pharmacopeias across continents, often prioritizing topical or purgative effects amid recognized toxicity risks.^[25]^[9]

Cultivation Practices

Agronomic Requirements

Jatropha curcas, the species most commonly cultivated for industrial purposes, requires tropical or subtropical climates with mean annual temperatures between 20°C and 28°C for optimal growth.^[28] It exhibits tolerance to high temperatures and can withstand light frost, though prolonged exposure to temperatures below 0°C may cause damage.^[28] Mean monthly temperatures ideally range from 23°C to 27°C, with suitability decreasing outside 15°C to 28°C based on agro-climatic zoning studies.^[29] Annual rainfall of 300 mm to 2000 mm supports establishment and productivity, with 95% of natural specimens occurring in areas receiving over 944 mm yearly.^[30] ^[28] The plant demonstrates drought tolerance through mechanisms such as leaf shedding, enabling survival in semi-arid conditions with minimal water, though water use can reach 140 mm monthly under favorable moisture and evaporative demand.^[31] Annual water requirements average 750 mm in semi-arid tropics, with crop coefficients varying by growth stage from 0.6 during initial establishment to 1.2 at peak canopy cover.^[32] J. curcas adapts to a wide range of soils, including marginal, low-fertility, and degraded types, thriving without high nutrient inputs.^[33] It prefers well-drained, sandy loam or lateritic soils with pH 6 to 8.5, but can grow on heavy clays or calcareous soils if drainage is adequate to prevent waterlogging.^[34] Nitrogen demands are elevated compared to other crops due to cultivation on nutrient-poor sites, though minimal fertilization suffices for survival.^[35] Soil depth should exceed 50 cm for root development, with extraction extending to 150 cm in mature plants under irrigation.^[36]

Propagation and Yield Factors

Jatropha curcas is primarily propagated through seeds or vegetative cuttings, with vegetative methods favored for commercial plantations to ensure genetic uniformity and preserve desirable traits such as high oil content. Seed propagation involves direct sowing or transplanting nursery-raised seedlings, where factors like seed quality, sowing depth, and timing influence germination rates, which can be low due to recalcitrant seed nature and short viability.^[37]^[38]^[39] Vegetative propagation via stem cuttings—typically 20-50 cm long with a basal diameter of 1-2 cm—promotes rapid rooting and establishment, with shorter cuttings enabling earlier sprouting while longer ones support better root development and overall plant vigor.^[40]^[41] Hardwood cuttings planted in polybags offer flexibility in planting schedules and high survival rates exceeding 90% under optimal conditions, outperforming seeds by avoiding variability in offspring traits.^[42]^[43] Tissue culture techniques, including nodal explants on media supplemented with cytokinins like BAP and auxins, enable mass propagation but are costlier and less commonly used outside research settings.^[44] Seed and biomass yields in J. curcas vary widely from 0.1 to 15 tons per hectare annually, with average oil yields around 1,590 kg/ha, influenced heavily by genetic factors including low female-to-male flower ratios (1:10 to 1:25) that limit fruit set.^[45]^[46] Environmental variables such as rainfall, temperature, and soil fertility play causal roles; drought stress reduces biomass allocation to roots and shoots, while adequate precipitation (500-1,200 mm/year) and nutrient amendments like poultry litter biochar enhance leaf nutrient uptake and overall productivity.^[47]^[48] Agronomic practices, including planting density (1,000-2,000 plants/ha), pruning to increase productive branches, and microbial inoculants (e.g., rhizobacteria), can boost seed number per plant by up to 49% and single seed weight by 20%, though global variability persists due to inconsistent management and site-specific climates.^[49]^[35]^[50] Harvesting fruits at the yellow stage, rather than full maturity, increases oil extraction by 6-9% compared to delayed picking.^[51] Empirical data from field trials underscore that yields often fall short of early biofuel projections, attributable to unoptimized genetics and abiotic constraints rather than inherent plant limitations.^[52]

Pests, Diseases, and Management Challenges

Jatropha curcas, the species most commonly cultivated for biofuel and other uses, faces significant threats from over 60 insect species across 21 families, as well as fungal, viral, bacterial, and nematode pathogens, leading to defoliation, reduced seed yields, and plant mortality in monoculture plantations.^[53] Despite the plant's inherent toxicity from compounds like phorbol esters, which deter some herbivores, it lacks robust natural resistance, resulting in outbreaks that can cause up to 100% seedling loss in regions like Mozambique and Malawi.^[54] Major insect pests include defoliators such as the Jatropha leaf webber (Pempelia morosalis), which forms 3-11 webs per plant containing 6-30 larvae that feed on foliage and capsules, and the red hairy caterpillar (Amsacta albistriga), active from July to August and polyphagous on multiple hosts.^[55] Sucking pests like coccids (Megapulvinaria maxima), peaking October-November with high densities, and shield-backed bugs (Scutellera nobilis, Chrysocoris purpureus), numbering 2-15 adults per plant from August-November, cause sap loss, sooty mold, and fruit distortion.^[55]^[53] Root and stem feeders, including termites and wood borers (Oncideres limpida), damage underground parts and girdle branches (2-8 per plant in October-November), while leaf miners and flea beetles (Aphthona spp.) create ongoing foliage injury year-round.^[55]^[54] Diseases predominantly involve over 35 fungal species, such as Fusarium solani causing root rot, Colletotrichum spp. leading to anthracnose and leaf spots with 30-40% yield losses in wet conditions, and Alternaria ricini or Cercospora spp. producing necrotic spots and defoliation.^[53]^[54] Viral infections like Jatropha mosaic virus induce leaf mosaics and distortion, while nematodes (Meloidogyne javanica, Rotylenchulus reniformis) stunt growth via root galls and feeding.^[53] Bacterial pathogens, including Xanthomonas spp., contribute to wilt and spots, exacerbated by poor drainage or high humidity.^[53] Management relies on integrated approaches, including cultural practices like clean cultivation, debris removal, crop rotation, and optimal spacing to reduce pest habitats, alongside biological controls such as entomopathogenic fungi (Metarhizium) for borers and predatory mites for sucking pests.^[55]^[53] Chemical interventions involve neem seed extracts (5%) applied 3-4 times for leaf miners and webber, or insecticides like chlorpyriphos (2-2.5 ml/L) for termites and carbaryl (2-3 g/L) for caterpillars, though timing is critical to prevent resistance and post-infection inefficacy.^[55]^[54] Fungicides (contact, systemic) target foliar diseases, but efficacy drops once symptoms manifest.^[54] Challenges include the vulnerability of large-scale monocultures to rapid pest buildup, limited availability of resistant hybrids, and insufficient field data on regional variations, as documented poorly for private or community plantations.^[54] Environmental factors like waterlogging amplify fungal outbreaks, while over-reliance on chemicals risks ecological harm and residue in biofuel products, underscoring the need for breeding programs focused on biotic stress tolerance.^[53]^[54]

Industrial and Biofuel Applications

Biofuel Hype and Technological Development

In the mid-2000s, Jatropha curcas gained prominence as a purported "miracle" biofuel crop amid surging global oil prices and biofuel mandates, such as the European Union's Renewable Energy Directive aiming for 10% biofuel in transport by 2020.^[56] Promoters claimed it could yield 5-12 metric tons of seeds per hectare annually with 30-40% oil content, suitable for biodiesel production, while thriving on marginal, non-arable lands without competing with food crops or requiring irrigation.^[57] These assertions stemmed from preliminary observations of its hardiness in tropical regions and its non-edible oil, positioning it as a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels and edible oil feedstocks like palm or soy.^[58] The hype accelerated between 2005 and 2009, fueled by investments from multinational corporations including BP, Shell, and Daimler, which funded large-scale plantations in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia totaling over 1 million hectares by 2008.^[59] Governments, such as India's Planning Commission targeting 20% biodiesel blending by promoting Jatropha on wastelands, and NGOs emphasizing poverty alleviation through smallholder schemes, amplified the narrative.^[60] However, these projections relied on unverified field data from wild or semi-cultivated stands, overlooking the plant's undomesticated status and genetic variability, which limited reproducible high yields.^[5] Technological development focused on genetic improvement to enhance seed yield, oil quality, and pest resistance, given Jatropha's baseline polyunsaturated fatty acid profile suboptimal for biodiesel stability.^[61] Conventional breeding programs, initiated around 2007 in India and Brazil, selected for higher oil content (up to 40% in elite lines) and synchronized flowering via backcross hybrids, with genetic gains estimated at 10-20% per cycle through multi-trait selection indexes.^[62] Biotechnological approaches, including ultrahigh-density linkage maps constructed by 2018 and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation for traits like virus resistance, aimed to accelerate domestication, though experts projected at least 15 years for commercial viability due to the species' outcrossing nature and long juvenile phase.^[63]^[64] Biodiesel processing technologies advanced in parallel, with transesterification methods refined using heterogeneous catalysts like K2O/fly ash to convert crude Jatropha oil into fatty acid methyl esters meeting ASTM D6751 standards, achieving yields of 95-98% under optimized conditions such as microwave-assisted reactors.^[65] Despite these innovations, early extraction challenges persisted, including high free fatty acid content requiring pre-treatment and energy-intensive pressing of toxin-laden seeds, underscoring that technological progress lagged behind the hype's scale-up assumptions.^[66]

Actual Yields, Processing, and Economic Viability

Field trials of Jatropha curcas have consistently reported seed yields substantially lower than the 5–12 metric tons per hectare annually promoted during the 2000s biofuel boom. A global meta-analysis of yields across diverse environments found a mean of 2,218 ± 148 kg/ha/year, with high variability due to genotype, soil, climate, and management factors. In irrigated and fertilized trials in Haryana, India, yields averaged only 473 kg/ha over three years. Without intensive inputs, yields often fall below 1 t/ha, as marginal lands promoted for cultivation prove inadequate for sustained productivity.^[52]^[67] Processing J. curcas seeds for biodiesel involves mechanical pressing or solvent extraction to obtain crude oil, yielding 25–40% by weight, followed by transesterification with methanol and a catalyst to produce fatty acid methyl esters. High free fatty acid content (up to 15–20%) in harvested oil necessitates acid pretreatment to avoid soap formation during alkali-catalyzed transesterification, increasing costs and complexity. Byproduct seed cake contains phorbol esters and other toxins, limiting its use as animal feed without expensive detoxification, further eroding economic returns. Variability in seed maturity and oil quality across harvests exacerbates processing inefficiencies.^[6]^[66] Economic analyses reveal J. curcas biodiesel production lacks viability under realistic conditions. A World Bank study in Nepal concluded that profitability hinges on diesel prices exceeding $1/liter, seed yields above 3 t/ha, and oil prices competitive with petroleum, none of which held in practice. Modeling exercises indicate break-even requires yields of 4–5 t/ha and subsidies, but actual low outputs and high establishment costs (e.g., $1,000–2,000/ha for planting and maintenance) result in negative net present values for most projects. Large-scale initiatives in India, Africa, and Southeast Asia collapsed by the early 2010s due to uncompetitive costs versus established feedstocks like palm oil, with abandonment rates exceeding 90% in some regions.^[68]^[69]^[70]

Alternative Industrial Uses

Jatropha curcas oil, derived from the seeds of the plant, serves as a raw material for soap production due to its high content of unsaturated fatty acids, which contribute to lathering and emollient properties. The oil is particularly valued in manufacturing medicinal and cosmetic soaps, where it exhibits antimicrobial activity and potential skin-healing effects, though phorbol esters present in raw oil necessitate detoxification processes to mitigate toxicity risks. A 2016 study detailed the formulation of such soaps, confirming their viability after ester removal, with applications in treating skin conditions through topical use.^[71]^[72] The viscous nature of Jatropha oil also enables its use in lubricants and varnishes, where it acts as a base for industrial formulations requiring high viscosity and oxidative stability. Research on metallic surfactants synthesized from Jatropha oil highlights its traditional application in lubricants, attributing efficacy to the oil's fatty acid profile, including oleic and linoleic acids, which provide lubrication without rapid degradation.^[73] Similarly, the oil has been employed in varnish production for wood coatings, leveraging its drying properties comparable to tung oil.^[74] In the cosmetics sector, refined Jatropha oil finds limited but established roles in products like lotions and creams, capitalizing on its moisturizing attributes post-detoxification. Historical reviews note its integration into cosmetic formulations as an alternative to petroleum-derived emollients, though scalability remains constrained by processing costs and yield variability. Additionally, the oil supports candle manufacturing, where its combustibility and moldability yield durable products suitable for lighting in resource-limited settings.^[75]^[76] Other niche industrial applications include dyes and glues, derived from seed extracts or oil byproducts, with the plant's latex providing natural pigments resistant to fading. However, these uses are underdeveloped commercially, often limited to artisanal scales due to inconsistent quality and competition from synthetic alternatives. Insecticidal properties from oil fractions have been explored for pest control formulations, offering biodegradable options over chemical pesticides, though efficacy trials indicate variable performance against specific insects.^[77]^[74] Overall, while these alternatives diversify Jatropha's utility beyond biofuels, economic viability hinges on overcoming extraction inefficiencies and toxic compound management, with most applications confined to small-scale or experimental contexts as of 2023.^[76]

Toxicity and Health Risks

Toxic Compounds and Mechanisms

Phorbol esters, tetracyclic diterpenoids primarily found in the seeds, kernel meal, and latex of Jatropha species such as J. curcas, are the predominant toxic compounds responsible for acute irritancy and purgative effects upon ingestion or dermal contact. Concentrations in untreated kernel meal range from 600 to 3,700 mg/kg fresh weight.^[78] These esters mimic diacylglycerol to irreversibly activate protein kinase C (PKC), triggering intracellular signaling cascades that induce inflammation, hyperproliferation of epithelial cells, and tumor promotion through enhanced gene expression and cytokine release.^[79] ^[80] However, a 2020 study challenged phorbol esters as the sole agents, proposing that hydroxy-octadecenoic acids in seed extracts drive toxicity via down-regulation of uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) gene expression, elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and activation of platelet P-selectin (CD62P), leading to hemostatic disruptions.^[81] Curcin, a type I ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) localized in J. curcas seed endosperm, functions as an N-glycosidase that catalytically removes an adenine residue from 28S ribosomal RNA, halting peptide chain elongation during translation and inducing apoptosis in affected cells.^[82] This mechanism parallels that of ricin, resulting in cytotoxic effects including inhibited cell growth and necrosis, particularly in hepatic and gastrointestinal tissues.^[83] Curcin's expression varies across tissues, with higher levels in seeds serving potential defensive roles against herbivores.^[84] Secondary compounds like saponins contribute to cytotoxicity and hemolytic potential but are non-hemolytic in Jatropha and occur at similar concentrations in both toxic and non-toxic varieties, suggesting limited causality in primary toxicity.^[85] Trypsin inhibitors and lectins further impair digestion and nutrient absorption, exacerbating systemic effects through combined antinutritional impacts.^[86] Overall toxicity manifests acutely via gastrointestinal irritation and chronically through carcinogenic risks, with mechanisms amplified by the plant's tissue-specific compound distribution.^[87]

Effects on Humans and Animals

Ingestion of Jatropha curcas seeds by humans typically results in acute gastrointestinal symptoms, including severe vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and restlessness, as documented in cases involving children who accidentally consumed the seeds.^[88] In a reported incident, two children aged 3 and 5 years exhibited these symptoms after ingesting seeds, with onset within hours and resolution following supportive care such as hydration and antiemetics.^[88] Phorbol esters in the seeds act as irritants, potentially leading to nausea, dizziness, and dehydration, though fatalities in humans remain unreported despite widespread exposure risks in regions where the plant is cultivated.^[89]^[90] Skin contact with plant latex or extracts may cause irritation or dermatitis due to irritant compounds, but oral ingestion poses the primary hazard.^[78] In animals, Jatropha species exhibit similar toxicity profiles, with seeds and leaves causing severe effects in livestock such as sheep, goats, and cattle. Experimental feeding of J. curcas seeds to sheep and goats induces diarrhea, dehydration, reduced water intake, inappetence, sunken eyes, and weight loss, often progressing to lethality within days at higher doses.^[91] Goats poisoned by J. ribifolia leaves display hemorrhagic enteritis and multifocal necrosis in the gastrointestinal tract, confirming the plant's broad toxicity across ruminants.^[92] Dogs exposed to J. multifida have shown vomiting and transient liver enzyme elevations, treatable with decontamination and supportive therapy.^[93] All plant parts contribute to toxicity, with phorbol esters and curcin inhibiting protein synthesis and promoting inflammation, leading to documented deaths in farm animals but no specific antidote beyond symptomatic management.^[78]^[94]

Detoxification and Safety Measures

Detoxification of Jatropha curcas seeds and seed cake primarily targets toxic compounds such as phorbol esters, curcin (a lectin), and trypsin inhibitors to enable uses like animal feed or, potentially, edible oil after further processing.^[85] Physical methods, including heat treatments like boiling, autoclaving, or microwave irradiation, inactivate heat-labile toxins; for instance, autoclaving at 121°C for 15-30 minutes can reduce curcin activity by over 90% while preserving protein content.^[95] Solvent extraction using short-chain alcohols such as ethanol or methanol effectively removes phorbol esters, with studies showing up to 95% reduction in treated seed cake, though residual solvents must be evaporated to avoid introducing new hazards.^[96] Biological approaches, such as fermentation with fungi (Aspergillus spp.) or bacteria (Bacillus spp.), degrade phorbol esters through enzymatic hydrolysis, achieving detoxification in as little as 72 hours under optimized conditions, often combined with physical pretreatments for enhanced efficacy.^[97] Combined methods—e.g., grinding followed by solvent soaking and sun-drying—have demonstrated near-complete toxin removal in field trials, yielding protein isolates suitable for monogastric animal diets without adverse effects in bioassays.^[98] However, no single method fully eliminates all antinutritional factors without trade-offs in nutritional value, and regulatory approval for feed use remains limited due to variability in toxin levels across cultivars.^[99] Safety measures for handling Jatropha plants emphasize prevention of exposure to latex, seeds, and extracts, which contain irritants and tumor promoters. Workers should use personal protective equipment including gloves, long sleeves, pants, and eye protection to minimize dermal and ocular contact, as phorbol esters can cause inflammation and blistering upon skin exposure.^[100] In processing facilities, enclosed systems and ventilation are recommended to prevent inhalation of dust or vapors, with post-exposure protocols involving thorough washing with soap and water.^[101] For accidental ingestion, immediate induction of emesis or gastric lavage followed by activated charcoal administration is advised to reduce absorption, particularly in cases of seed consumption, which has led to vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration in documented human poisonings.^[102] Veterinary guidelines for animal exposure include supportive care like fluid therapy, as no specific antidote exists. Hydrothermally treated kernels from low-toxin varieties show reduced risks but still require toxicity testing before human or animal applications.^[103] Overall, while detoxification enables limited utilization, Jatropha handling demands strict protocols due to its potent irritancy, with no evidence supporting safe raw consumption.^[104]

Claimed Benefits and Empirical Realities

Proponents of Jatropha curcas cultivation have claimed it offers substantial environmental benefits, including the ability to thrive on marginal, degraded lands without irrigation or fertilizers, thereby reclaiming eroded soils, reducing wind and water erosion, and incorporating organic matter to improve soil fertility.^[105] ^[106] These assertions positioned Jatropha as a non-competitive alternative to food crops, with potential for high energy returns on investment and significant greenhouse gas (GHG) savings when grown on abandoned fields.^[107] ^[108] Socially, initiatives promised rural employment, income generation for smallholders, and poverty alleviation through biofuel production chains that integrate local communities.^[109] Empirical evidence, however, reveals these benefits to be overstated. Field studies in regions like Ethiopia and India demonstrate that Jatropha yields are marginal or negligible on truly degraded marginal lands without supplemental water or inputs, contradicting claims of drought tolerance and leading to widespread project abandonment.^[110] ^[111] ^[112] Environmental assessments indicate higher-than-expected water demands, potential biodiversity loss from monoculture plantations, and carbon debts from land preparation, undermining net GHG reductions in many cases.^[113] ^[108] Regarding invasiveness, while some studies find insufficient evidence of widespread natural regeneration or spread into adjacent ecosystems, others highlight risks of seed dispersal by animals and potential establishment in non-native habitats, particularly in tropical areas.^[114] ^[115] ^[116] Social outcomes have similarly fallen short of promises, with numerous large-scale projects in sub-Saharan Africa, India, and Southeast Asia collapsing due to unprofitability, market failures, and inadequate yields, resulting in job losses rather than sustained employment.^[58] ^[117] Reports document cases of land acquisitions displacing local farmers and pastoralists without delivering equitable benefits, exacerbating food insecurity and social tensions in affected communities.^[118] ^[119] Smallholder participation often yielded low returns, with farmers in Zambia and Ghana citing non-viable economics as reasons for abandonment.^[120] Overall, the hype-driven expansion of Jatropha plantations has led to "ghost projects" and unintended transformations, including abandoned lands that revert to scrub rather than restored ecosystems.^[117] ^[5]

Negative Outcomes and Invasiveness

Jatropha curcas plantations have been linked to biodiversity loss through the displacement of native vegetation, particularly in marginal lands converted for cultivation, where the plant's dense growth can suppress understory species and alter local ecosystems.^[113] In regions such as sub-Saharan Africa and India, large-scale projects resulted in deforestation and habitat fragmentation, exacerbating soil erosion on unsuitable terrains.^[5] High water demands, often exceeding 500-1000 mm annually in rainfed systems, have strained local resources in arid areas, leading to groundwater depletion and competition with food crops.^[121] Regarding invasiveness, assessments indicate variable risk depending on region and management. In Australia, J. curcas is classified as an environmental weed with potential to invade natural areas, scoring high on weed risk assessments due to prolific seed production and animal dispersal.^[16] However, field studies in Ethiopia and other tropical sites found insufficient evidence of widespread natural recruitment or significant spread beyond plantations, attributing limited invasiveness to poor soil adaptation and lack of viable propagules in non-native habitats.^[115] ^[116] Modeling predicts higher invasion potential in biodiversity hotspots like protected areas in Mesoamerica, where escaped plants could threaten endangered species through competition and toxicity.^[122] Abandoned plantations, common after biofuel project failures—such as in Ghana and Myanmar where yields fell below 2 tons/ha despite promises of 5-12 tons/ha—have fostered feral populations that degrade landscapes by preventing regeneration of native flora and contributing to long carbon payback periods exceeding 100 years.^[5] ^[123] Ecotoxicity from its latex and seeds, containing phorbol esters, further impacts soil biota and aquatic systems via runoff, with life-cycle analyses showing elevated eutrophication and acidification compared to fossil fuels in Indian contexts.^[121] These outcomes underscore the causal link between monoculture expansion without ecological vetting and unintended environmental degradation.^[113]

Socioeconomic Controversies and Failures

The promotion of Jatropha curcas as a biofuel crop in the 2000s sparked widespread socioeconomic controversies, as ambitious government and corporate initiatives promised rural employment and poverty alleviation but frequently resulted in displacement, unfulfilled economic benefits, and project abandonments. In India, the 2003 National Biofuel Mission targeted 13–17 million hectares of "wasteland" for cultivation to meet a 20% biodiesel blending goal by 2017, projecting 127.6 million man-days of employment and Rs 750 million in income for 1.9 million families; however, low seed yields—often below 1 kg per plant after three years—and lack of irrigation led to widespread failures, with 85% of farmers discontinuing cultivation by 2011.^[124]^[58]^[125] Land acquisitions for Jatropha plantations often constituted de facto grabs, particularly affecting tribal and dalit communities reliant on common lands for grazing and subsistence farming. In Chhattisgarh state, 1,700 acres were seized from 355 families across 27 villages in Kanker and Bastar districts between 2006 and 2009, displacing 18 households in Sunderkera village alone and converting vital foraging areas without community consent or compensation.^[124] Similar patterns emerged in Africa, where projects in Tanzania involved thousands of hectares of community land taken for plantations, displacing smallholders and disrupting local agriculture; in Ghana, initiatives affected over 10,000 people, leading to food insecurity and loss of livelihoods when yields underperformed expectations.^[5]^[125] Economic viability crumbled under the weight of overestimated returns, with global plantings peaking at around 900,000 hectares by 2008 but collapsing due to poor agronomic performance on marginal soils, including drought vulnerability and pest issues. In Tanzania, smallholder schemes yielded negative net present values of US$65 per hectare at 2 tons/ha yields, leaving millions of poor farmers in Asia and Africa—regions accounting for 98% of plantings—with net losses after investing labor and seeds based on hype-driven promises.^[58] By 2016–2020, most of India's 55 involved companies had abandoned operations, creating "ghost plantations" on 1 million hectares and shifting policy focus away from biofuels amid unmet targets and insufficient marketing support.^[125]^[5]

Selected Species

Jatropha curcas

Jatropha curcas L. is a deciduous shrub or small tree in the Euphorbiaceae family, typically reaching heights of 3–6 meters, with a succulent stem producing watery latex and spirally arranged, 3–5-lobed leaves that are pale green and papery.^[19] Native to Mexico and Central America, it features small, greenish-yellow flowers in inflorescences and capsular fruits containing 2–3 ovoid seeds rich in oil, with seeds comprising 30–40% oil content by weight.^[15] The plant thrives in seasonally dry tropical biomes, tolerating poor, gravelly, sandy, or saline soils and demonstrating drought resistance once established, though it requires initial rainfall or irrigation for germination and early growth.^[126] ^[127] Introduced widely across the tropics since at least the 16th century, J. curcas has naturalized in regions including southwestern Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and Madagascar, often invading disturbed sites such as roadsides, pastures, and abandoned lands.^[15] ^[128] It reproduces via seeds dispersed by animals or gravity, with potential for invasiveness in non-native ecosystems, though empirical field studies in Ethiopia and Australia indicate limited natural recruitment and spread beyond plantations under current conditions.^[116] ^[115] The seeds yield non-edible oil promoted for biodiesel production, with early 2000s hype positioning J. curcas as a high-yield crop for marginal lands, but field trials reveal average seed yields of 0.5–2.6 tons per hectare annually, often below 1 ton in rain-fed systems, yielding insufficient oil (typically 150–200 kg/ha) for economic viability without irrigation or fertilizers. ^[121] Large-scale projects in India, Africa, and elsewhere collapsed post-2010 due to overestimated yields, pest susceptibility, soil degradation, and competition with food crops, resulting in abandoned plantations and unmet investment expectations exceeding $1 billion globally.^[58] ^[129] Toxicity stems from phorbol esters and curcin, a ribosome-inactivating protein akin to ricin, rendering seeds, leaves, and latex poisonous; ingestion causes severe gastroenteritis, with documented cases in children from accidental consumption leading to vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration requiring medical intervention.^[130] ^[131] While traditional uses include medicinal applications in native regions for purgative or wound-healing effects at low doses, empirical evidence underscores risks to livestock and humans, limiting safe utilization without detoxification processes like heat treatment or solvent extraction, which reduce but do not eliminate hazards.^[25] Environmentally, J. curcas cultivation on marginal lands has led to biodiversity loss, elevated water demands (up to 1,000 mm annually in dry areas), and temporary carbon debts from land conversion, contradicting claims of low-input sustainability; invasiveness risks remain context-dependent, with higher threats in biodiversity hotspots like protected areas in Africa.^[113] ^[122] Despite potential as a living fence or erosion barrier in suitable agroforestry systems, socioeconomic analyses highlight failures in poverty alleviation, as low returns and land tenure issues prompted farmer abandonment in trials across Chiapas, Mexico, and Mali.^[129] ^[117]

Other Notable Species

Jatropha multifida, commonly known as coral plant, is an evergreen or semi-deciduous shrub reaching up to 6 meters in height, native to Mexico and cultivated ornamentally in tropical regions for its large, palmately divided leaves and clusters of bright coral-pink flowers.^[132] It thrives in well-drained soils with full sun exposure and is hardy in USDA zones 10-12.^[133] Traditional uses in West African folk medicine include employing seeds as a purgative, though the plant contains toxic latex similar to other Jatropha species.^[134] Jatropha gossypiifolia, or bellyache bush, grows as a much-branched, succulent shrub to 3 meters tall, originally from Mexico, South America, and the Caribbean but now pantropical and considered invasive in some areas like Puerto Rico.^[135] Its leaves serve in traditional medicine across Africa, Asia, and Latin America for treating ailments such as skin inflammations, venereal diseases, stomach issues, and as a blood purifier or febrifuge, despite containing toxic phorbol esters that cause irritation and poisoning.^[9] Jatropha podagrica, referred to as Buddha belly or gout plant, is a caudiciform succulent shrub with a distinctive swollen basal stem, typically 0.6-1 meter tall in cultivation, native to southern Mexico and Central America.^[136] Grown worldwide as an ornamental houseplant or in arid tropical gardens for its red inflorescences and bottle-like caudex, it has historical applications in tanning leather and producing red dyes in Mexico, alongside medicinal and poisonous uses due to its toxic sap.^[137] Jatropha integerrima, known as peregrina or spicy Jatropha, forms a multi-trunked evergreen shrub or small tree up to 4.5 meters tall, native to Cuba and the West Indies, and widely planted in subtropical landscapes for its continuous display of scarlet or pink flower clusters that attract butterflies and hummingbirds.^[138] It prefers full sun and well-drained soil, reaching 3-4.5 meters in spread, but all parts are toxic, with seeds and sap causing severe gastrointestinal distress if ingested.^[139]

References

[1]
Jatropha L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Accepted Species. Includes 176 Accepted Species. KB. Jatropha aceroides (Pax ... World Checklist and Bibliography of Euphorbiaceae (and Pandaceae) 1-4: 1-1622.
[2]
The genus Jatropha (Euphorbiaceae): A review on secondary ...
Feb 25, 2020 · The genus Jatropha belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family and has about 175 species. Originally from tropical America, the Jatropha genus can ...
[3]
Jatropha - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Jatropha is defined as a small tree from the Euphorbiaceae family, typically growing 5–7 m in height, and thriving in arid, semi-arid, and tropical regions.<|separator|>
[4]
Current Progress of Jatropha Curcas Commoditisation as Biodiesel ...
Jatropha Curcas is a low-cost biodiesel feedstock with good fuel properties and more oil than other species. It is a non-edible oilseed feedstock.Abstract · Introduction · Botanical Description of... · Characteristics of Jatropha...
[5]
Jatropha: The biofuel that bombed seeks a path to redemption
Apr 6, 2023 · The rush to jatropha was driven by its promise as a sustainable source of biofuel that could be grown on degraded, unfertile lands so as not to displace food ...
[6]
Jatropha Biofuel Industry: The Challenges - IntechOpen
Jan 25, 2017 · Jatropha seed oil possesses biodiesel and jet fuel production potentials. Its wood, leaves and fruits have been using as firewood in rural areas ...
[7]
Potentialities and limits of Jatropha curcas L. as alternative energy ...
This article aims to analyze not only the limits but also the potentialities of Jatropha curcas as an alternative energy source to the most common energy ...
[8]
Jatropha Toxicity—A Review - Taylor & Francis Online
The toxicity of Jatropha plant extracts from fruit, seed, oil, roots, latex, bark, and leaf to a number of species, from microorganisms to higher animals, is ...
[9]
Jatropha gossypiifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae): A Review of Traditional ...
Jatropha gossypiifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae), widely known as “bellyache bush,” is a medicinal plant largely used throughout Africa and America.
[10]
- Jatropha (2014) - Henry Shaw Cactus and Succulent Society
The genus has 170 species, with plants that are succulent plants, shrubs and trees. Most of the plants are considered shrubs, with a fewer number of species ...
[11]
Plant Finder - Jatropha curcas - Missouri Botanical Garden
Jatropha curcas, commonly called purging nut, Barbados nut or physic nut, is a dioecious small tree or large shrub that grows to 20' tall. It is native to ...
[12]
The genus Jatropha (Euphorbiaceae): A review on secondary ...
Feb 25, 2020 · Jatropha species are recognized to be important sources of secondary metabolites with a broad spectrum of biological functions.
[13]
Jatropha - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Native distribution of Jatropha occurs in Mexico, Central America and part of South America, but currently, it has a pantropical distribution. Approximately, ...
[14]
Jatropha - FNA - Flora of North America
Nov 5, 2020 · Species ca. 190 (10 in the flora). Some species of Jatropha are cultivated as ornamentals throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the ...
[15]
Jatropha curcas (jatropha) | CABI Compendium - CABI Digital Library
Jun 3, 2015 · USDA-ARS (2015) notes a native range of Mexico, Central America and northern South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and Paraguay) ...
[16]
[PDF] Weed Risk Assessment for Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae)
Feb 13, 2015 · Botanical description: Jatropha curcas is a deciduous, perennial, somewhat succulent, monoecious shrub or small tree that becomes 8 to 15 ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[17]
Jatropha L. - World Flora Online
Jatropha L. Sp. Pl. : 1006 (1753). The genus Jatropha is in the family Euphorbiaceae in the major group Angiosperms by Euphorbiaceae. The record derives from ...
[18]
Jatropha gossypiifolia (bellyache bush) | CABI Compendium
Many Jatropha species in their native Americas occur in seasonally dry areas such as grassland-savanna (cerrado), thorn forest scrub and caatingas, and are ...
[19]
Jatropha curcas - Useful Tropical Plants
Range. Tropical S. America - probably Central America to Mexico. ; Weed Potential, Yes ; Habit, Deciduous Tree ; Height, 4.00 m ; Pollinators, Insects.
[20]
Jatropha - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The genus Jatropha was described for the first time in 1737 by Linnaeus [5]. The Jatropha species are considered perennial plants (except for some of them as ...
[21]
jatropha, n. meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary
Etymon: Latin Jatropha. < scientific Latin Jatropha, genus name (Linnaeus Species plantarum (1753) vol. I. 1006), apparently < ancient Greek ἰατρός (see iatro- ...
[22]
History of Jatropha curcas.L
The physic nut seems to be native to Central America as well as to Mexico where it occurs naturally in the forests of coastal regions.
[23]
Traditional Mayan Medicine and its Healing Plants - Everphi
Jan 14, 2019 · Pomolche (Jatropha Curcas): The sap of this plant is used for the treatment of skin regeneration, difficult pimples and smallpox. This milky ...
[24]
Cultivation of Jatropha shows the importance of conservation
Nov 13, 2019 · In this area, jatropha seeds are also (still) used to prepare traditional meals by local Native Mexicans of Totonac and Huastecan descent ...Missing: Aztec America
[25]
Ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology and toxicity of Jatropha curcas L ...
It has been used for treatment of a wide spectrum of ailments related to skin, cancer, digestive, respiratory and infectious diseases. This review aims to ...
[26]
Ethnomedicine of the Kagera Region, north western Tanzania. Part 2
Jul 22, 2010 · ... Jatropha curcas [27,28], Lantana camara [29-31], Melanthera scandens ... Screening of medicinal plants of Rwanda (Central Africa) for ...
[27]
[PDF] Jatropha curcas L. as A Medicinal Plant - CRSDINDIA.COM
the race of medicinal plants, one such plant, with lot of medicinal potential is Jatropha curcas ... as folklore remedies among some tribes in West Africa, ...
[28]
Tips for Cultivation of Jatrophas Curcas
Grows on any type of soils. Requires hot climate but can withstand light frost. The mean annual temperature ranges from 20-28oC.Mean annual rainfall 300-2000mm ...
[29]
Agro-climatic zoning of Jatropha curcas as a subside for crop ...
The results showed that the suitable range of T m for jatropha cultivation is between 23 and 27 °C. T m between 15 and 22.9 °C and between 27.1 and 28 °C were ...Missing: agronomic | Show results with:agronomic
[30]
Climatic growing conditions of Jatropha curcas L. - ScienceDirect
Ninety-five percent of the specimens grew in areas with a mean annual rainfall above 944 mm year−1 and an average minimum temperature of the coldest month (Tmin) ...Missing: agronomic | Show results with:agronomic
[31]
Water requirement and use by Jatropha curcas in a semi-arid ...
Monthly water use of Jatropha varied from 10–20 (leaf shedding period) to 140 mm depending on water availability and environmental demand.Missing: agronomic | Show results with:agronomic
[32]
Crop coefficients of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) and Pongamia ...
Aug 27, 2013 · Results showed that annual water requirement of Jatropha is 750 mm and of Pongamia is about 950 mm in semi-arid tropics. Crop coefficients of ...
[33]
[PDF] DR. M.S.PUNIA - USDA ARS
Thrives on any type of soil. • Needs minimal inputs or management. • Has no insect pests. • Not browsed by cattle or sheep. • Can survive long periods of ...
[34]
(PDF) Climate and soil-site suitability criteria for Jatropha curcas L ...
Jun 15, 2025 · It is a tropical plant that can be grown in low to high rainfall areas and can be used to reclaim land, as a hedge and/or as a commercial crop.Missing: agronomic | Show results with:agronomic<|separator|>
[35]
Improvement of plant growth and seed yield in Jatropha curcas by a ...
As Jatropha is targeted to be grown in marginal land where soil nutrient is low, the requirement for nitrogen fertilizer will be higher than other crops.
[36]
[PDF] Water requirement and use by Jatropha curcas in a semi-arid ...
Patterns of soil-water depletion indicated that with growing plant age from two to five years, depth of soil-water extraction increased from 100 to 150 cm ...
[37]
[PDF] Propagation methods for Jatropha curcas
Including propagation methods for Jatropha curcas and production and use of ... Generative propagation of Jatropha curcas L. on Kalahari Sand. Jacob ...
[38]
http://www.jatrophaworld.org
PROPAGATION METHODS ; GENERATIVE PROPAGATION, EFFECTING FACTORS ; Direct seeding. Quality of seeds; Seding depth; Date of sowing ; Transplantation of precultivated ...
[39]
[PDF] Jatropha curcas protoplast isolation and inhibitory effects of culture
curcas is a semi-woody. Page 24. 7 subtropical plant, overcoming browning is of great importance in respect to performing tissue culture on this species. This ...
[40]
Propagation by stem cuttings and root system structure of Jatropha ...
Jatropha can be multiplied vegetatively by stem and branch cuttings [69], minicuttings [70], and in vitro culture techniques [71]. Thus, established methods for ...
[41]
Propagation by stem cuttings and root system structure of Jatropha ...
The growth and development of Jatropha curcas plants were influenced by length and basal area of stem cuttings. Short cuttings favor early sprouting, but long ...
[42]
Propagation methods - Jatropha Pro
Hard cuttings. Using hard cuttings in poly bags is a reliable way of setting up a Jatropha plantation. It offers flexibility at planting time and a very ...
[43]
Jatropha curcas L. as a Plant Model for Studies on Vegetative ...
Sep 21, 2022 · plant has fast growth, precocity, and great adaptability, facilitating silvicultural studies, allowing important information to be obtained ...
[44]
Vegetative propagation of Jatropha curcas by stem cuttings
Aug 7, 2025 · The biodiesel plant, Jatropha curcas L. was micropropagated using nodal explants on MS supplemented with BAP (1.5 mg/l), Kn (0.5 mg/l) and IAA ( ...
[45]
Molecular Mechanisms of the Floral Biology of Jatropha curcas
Jun 8, 2020 · The main cause of lower seed yield is the low female to male flower ratio (1:25–10), which affects the total amount of seeds produced per plant.
[46]
Jatropha curcas as feedstock for green fuels production
Jan 15, 2021 · Five years old JC yields seeds from 0.1 to 15 ton/ha/year seeds and an average oil yield around 1590 kg/ha/year. JC is a non-edible (toxic) oil ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
Biomass production and allocation in Jatropha Curcas L. seedlings ...
Aug 10, 2025 · In a greenhouse experiment we applied three levels of drought stress and monitored growth variables and biomass production of Jatropha curcas seedlings.
[48]
Jatropha Curcas L. Biomass Yield and Leaf Nutrient Content ...
Incorporating poultry litter and its biochar into soil increased biomass yield and Jatropha leaf nutrient content.
[49]
Relationships among Jatropha curcas seed yield and vegetative ...
Results indicate that seed yield across the three cropping systems can be determined by plant height and numbers of productive twig/branch.
[50]
(PDF) Factors affecting genetic and seed yield variability of Jatropha ...
The large variability in seed yields across the globe is probably caused by differences in plant age, varying agronomic practices, site specific climates, soil ...
[51]
Variation of Jatropha curcas seed oil content and fatty acid ... - NIH
Feb 1, 2020 · Harvesting Jatropha fruits when they are yellow increases oil output by 6–9% as compared to harvesting the fruits on their final maturity stage ...
[52]
Factors affecting genetic and seed yield variability of Jatropha ...
Origin of J. curcas is in the Boarder sites of Chiapas state of Mexico. •. Low genetic diversity in its non-native range is ...<|separator|>
[53]
Jatropha Pests and Diseases: An Overview - SpringerLink
Oct 27, 2012 · Jatropha is susceptible to more than 35 fungal species, 4 viral and 4 bacterial pathogens, 6 nematodes and about 60 insect species.Missing: management | Show results with:management
[54]
[PDF] An overview of jatropha (Jatropha curcas) pests, diseases and ...
Jul 10, 2021 · Insect pests affecting Jatropha curcas include army worms, aphids, mealy bugs, citrus root weevil etc. [3]. Disease caused by fungal pathogens ...
[55]
[PDF] Insect Pests of Jatropha curcas and Their Management
Nov 20, 2021 · Though several sucking pests such as thrips, aphids, leafhoppers and white flies known to feed on Jatropha, only white fly (B.
[56]
Hailed as a miracle biofuel, jatropha falls short of hype - The Guardian
May 5, 2009 · The widespread publicity surrounding a seeming wonder-plant called Jatropha curcas began in earnest in the mid-2000s. A good-news story, it ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[57]
Hailed as a Miracle Biofuel, Jatropha Falls Short of Hype - Yale E360
May 4, 2009 · The scrubby jatropha tree has been touted as a wonder biofuel with unlimited potential. But questions are now emerging as to whether widespread jatropha ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[58]
The Extraordinary Collapse of Jatropha as a Global Biofuel
Aug 2, 2011 · (4) National planners' enthusiasm for the species rubbed off easily on research organizations and Universities that rely heavily on the Planning ...
[59]
The rise and fall of foreign private investment in the jatropha biofuel ...
Between 2005 and 2009 especially, there was strong global enthusiasm for jatropha (Sanderson, 2009), which many investors government actors and NGOs perceived ...
[60]
Jatropha curcas: A ten year story from hope to despair - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · The story of Jatropha curcas (Jatropha) was started in 2003 when the Planning Commission of India decided 20% blending of Jatropha oil ...
[61]
Jatropha curcas, a biofuel crop: Functional genomics for ...
Oct 2, 2013 · The seeds of Jatropha contain high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which negatively impact the biofuel quality. Fruiting of Jatropha is ...<|separator|>
[62]
Genetic evaluation of Jatropha backcross hybrid clones (BC4F1) for ...
Aug 18, 2022 · Jatropha curcas is a tropical species that has been recognized as a promising biodiesel plant. Attempts were made during 2018 - 2021 at ...
[63]
Construction of an ultrahigh-density genetic linkage map for ...
Jan 9, 2018 · As an important biofuel plant, the demand for higher yield Jatropha curcas L. is rapidly increasing. However, genetic analysis of Jatropha ...
[64]
Breeding and biotechnological efforts in Jatropha curcas L. for ...
Jatropha breeding efforts include developing high-yielding, virus-resistant lines, using biotechnological tools like genetic transformation, and achieving ...
[65]
Production and Characterization of Biodiesel from Jatropha curcas ...
Jun 10, 2025 · This study presents an innovative approach to biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas seed oil employing a novel K 2 O/fly ash heterogeneous catalyst.
[66]
Jatropha curcas oil a potential feedstock for biodiesel production
Aug 15, 2024 · Jatropha has been suggested as a potential energy crop because it produces high-quality oil and can be processed more affordably than other ...
[67]
A New Jatropha curcas Variety (JO S2) with Improved Seed ... - MDPI
In another trial conducted in Haryana, India for three years, under irrigation and fertilization, Jatropha seed yield reached 473 kg ha−1 [8].
[68]
Publication: The Economic Viability of Jatropha Biodiesel in Nepal
This study finds that the economics of jatropha-based biodiesel depend on several factors, such as diesel price, yield of jatropha seeds per hectare, and ...
[69]
An economic model for estimating the viability of biodiesel ...
Jul 14, 2016 · A calculation model to analyze the economic feasibility of biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas was developed, along with an analysis of the energetic ...
[70]
Economic Impact and Challenges of Jatropha curcas L. Projects in ...
Oct 16, 2025 · However, many farmers have given up on growing Jatropha for biodiesel production because of its unexpectedly low yields due to a lack of elite ...<|separator|>
[71]
Medicinal and cosmetics soap production from Jatropha oil - PubMed
Jan 18, 2016 · Jatropha oil is nonedible oil which has more benefits to soap making. It has also cosmetics and medicinal properties.
[72]
Medicinal and cosmetics soap production from Jatropha oil
Jan 18, 2016 · Jatropha oil is nonedible oil which has more benefits to soap making. It has also cosmetics and medicinal properties.Missing: lubricants dyes
[73]
Synthesis of metallic surfactants from Jatropha oil and study of it's ...
Jatropha oil has traditionally been used for making soap, lubricants, varnishes, candles etc. [[1], [2], [3]] It usually comprises unsaturated fatty acid like ...
[74]
Jatropha (Jatropha sp.) kernel meal and other jatropha products
Jatrophas are multipurpose plants. The name jatropha was derived from the Ancient Greek words iatros (doctor) and trophos (feed) because of its many potential ...
[75]
A review of Jatropha curcas: an oil plant of unfulfilled promise
Of particular importance, the fruit of jatropha contain viscous oil that can be used for soap making, in the cosmetics industry and as a diesel/kerosene ...
[76]
An evaluation of multipurpose oil seed crop for industrial uses ...
The seeds of Jatropha contain viscous oil, which can be used for manufacture of candles and soap, in cosmetics industry, as a diesel/paraffin substitute or ...
[77]
[PDF] REVIEW ON ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF JATROPHA APART ...
Jatropha's oil is used for biodiesel, soap, glue, and dye. Its parts are used for fertilizer, medicine, and can be used to prevent erosion and as a live fence.
[78]
Risks for human and animal health related to the ... - EFSA Journal
A comprehensive search for literature was conducted for peer-reviewed original research and reviews, pertaining to Jatropha PEsadverse health effects on animals ...
[79]
Phorbol Esters: Structure, Biological Activity, and Toxicity in Animals
The phorbol esters play a key role in activation of PKC, which triggers various cellular responses, thereby resulting in inflam- matory responses and tumor ...
[80]
Mechanisms of Phorbol Ester Toxicity, Determined by Molecular ...
Oct 16, 2020 · Phorbol esters are toxic phytochemicals, whose main biological target is protein kinase C. They bind irreversibly to the protein, causing cell ...
[81]
Hydroxy-octadecenoic acids instead of phorbol esters are ... - Nature
May 8, 2020 · In summary, our results suggest the role of hydroxy-octadecenoic acids in the toxicity of Jatropha seed and KCakeJ. The underlying mechanism is ...
[82]
Antitumor effects of curcin from seeds of Jatropha curcas - PubMed
Curcin has an obvious antitumor effect and its mechanisms are related to the N-glycosidase activity.
[83]
[PDF] Antitumor effects of curcin from seeds of Jatropha curcas
The mechanism of action of ricin and related toxic lectins on eukaryotic ribosome. The site and the characteristics of the modifica- tion in 28S ribosomal ...
[84]
Isolation and characterization of curcin genes with distinct ...
The biochemical function of curcins in jatropha is not known. Type I curcins in seeds may serve as storage proteins to provide nutrition during seed germination ...
[85]
Detoxification Methods of Jatropha curcas Seed Cake and Its ... - MDPI
May 14, 2024 · Since Jatropha saponins are non-hemolytic and are present in both poisonous and non-toxic forms of the plant at comparable concentrations ...
[86]
Heat detoxification of Jatropha cucas meal and its effect on ...
The adverse effects of phorbol ester, the primary toxic compound of raw jatropha meal, caused necrosis and degeneration of hepatic cells, the primary site ...
[87]
Jatropha Toxicity—A Review - ADS
Broadly, these extracts possess moluscicidal, piscicidal, insecticidal, rodenticidal, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties, and exert adverse effects on ...
[88]
Acute toxicity studies with Jatropha curcas L - PubMed
The seeds of Jatropha curcas L. ingested accidentally by two children aged 3 and 5 years led to a clinical syndrome of restlessness, severe vomiting and ...
[89]
FDA Notification to Industry: Products using oils, glycerin, or protein ...
Jul 6, 2012 · Oils, glycerin, and proteins from Jatropha may contain toxic compounds, including phorbol esters, which can cause acute and chronic toxicity. ...
[90]
[PDF] Biological and toxicological evaluation of edible Jatropha curcas L. oil
Consumption of the seeds containing phorbol esters induces nausea, dizziness, and diarrhea; hence all J. curcas-derived products are not advisable for human or.
[91]
Toxicity of Jatropha curcas in sheep and goats - ScienceDirect.com
Diarrhoea, reduced water consumption, dehydration, sunken eyes, inappétence and loss in condition were the important signs of J curcas poisoning in sheep and ...Missing: livestock cattle
[92]
Poisoning by Jatropha ribifolia in goats - ScienceDirect.com
The leaves of J. gossypiifolia are also toxic when given experimentally to sheep (Oliveira et al., 2008). Poisoning has been reported in cattle and in ...
[93]
Toxicology case: Jatropha multifida toxicosis in a dog - DVM360
May 31, 2014 · Transient subclinical elevations in hepatic enzyme activities in people are commonly noted after exposure to Jatropha species, rarely requiring ...
[94]
[PDF] Physic Nut, Jatropha curcas - Florida Department of Agriculture
Human deaths from poisoning by this plant apparently have not been reported, though animal deaths have. Symptoms and lesions are similar to those in poisoning ...
[95]
Comparative study between chemical, physical and enzymatic ...
May 15, 2019 · On the other hand, physical detoxification of Jatropha seed kernel showed good results with microwave treatment by reducing phorbol esters ...
[96]
Detoxification of Jatropha curcas seed cake using chemical treatment
Chemical treatment using ethanol and methanol is able to detoxify the seed cake. •. Protein value in the Jatropha cake did not change with the detoxification ...
[97]
Rapid detoxification of Jatropha curcas cake by fermentation with a ...
This study intends to explore the efficient detoxification of JCC through multi‐strain collaborative fermentation to accelerate the detoxification process.
[98]
[PDF] Combined Methods of Detoxification of Antinutrients that Prevent ...
100kg of jatropha seeds was detoxified each by physical (grind, soak and sundry) chemical (soak in methylated sprit, hexan and methanol) biological. ( ...
[99]
(PDF) Detoxification Methods of Jatropha curcas Seed Cake and Its ...
May 17, 2024 · Overall, the review concludes that these treatments hold great potential for the detoxification and utilization of JSC as an animal feed ...Missing: peer | Show results with:peer
[100]
Occular and dermal toxicity of Jatropha curcas phorbol esters
... safety procedures for Jatropha biodiesel industries. It is advised to use protective gloves and glasses when handling PEs containing Jatropha products.
[101]
Jatropha curcas L. (PIM 570) - INCHEM
The seeds of J. curcas have been used as a purgative, antihelminthic and abortifacient as well as for treating ascites, gout, paralysis and skin diseases.<|separator|>
[102]
Acute accidental mass poisoning by Jatropha curcas in Agra, North ...
In all cases; early emesis/gastric lavage should be performed followed by activated charcoal and a cathartic to hasten elimination. Because of its potential for ...
[103]
Safety of hydrothermally treated kernels from edible Jatropha curcas ...
Jan 21, 2022 · Although Jatropha curcas kernels are toxic because of the presence of phorbol esters (PEs), the possibility of using the protein and oil‐rich ...
[104]
Jatropha toxicity--a review - PubMed
Jatropha extracts are toxic to various species, with moluscicidal, piscicidal, insecticidal, rodenticidal, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties. It is also ...
[105]
Claims and Facts on Jatropha curcasL - Academia.edu
The paper examines the species Jatropha curcas L., focusing on its characteristics, distribution, and applications, particularly in biodiesel production.
[106]
[PDF] Case Study 'Jatropha Curcas' India - April 2004
- Jatropha is planted on reforestation projects together with many other species ... the different species in their environment. The loss of habitats affects the ...
[107]
A review of the sustainability of Jatropha cultivation projects for ...
Positive environmental impacts included high energy return on investment and high GHG savings when Jatropha is cultivated on abandoned agricultural fields as ...
[108]
Environmental sustainability of biofuels: a review - PMC
The aim of this paper is to review and analyse the latest available evidence to provide a greater clarity and understanding of the environmental impacts of ...
[109]
[PDF] Socio-Economic Sustainability of Biofuel ... - Harvard DASH
The Jatropha system. Integrated rural development by utilisation of. Jatropha curcas L. as raw material and as renewable energy. Paper presented at ...
[110]
[PDF] Jatropha Potential on Marginal Land in Ethiopia: Reality or Myth?
Although it has been argued that jatropha can be grown well on marginal land without irrigation, and thus does not compete for land and water or displace food ...
[111]
[PDF] Jatropha: money doesn't grow on trees
Reason 2: jatropha doesn't thrive on marginal land. The high yield expectations cited by investment companies are largely based on exaggerated claims about ...
[112]
Reality check for 'miracle' biofuel crop - SciDev.Net
Oct 27, 2010 · So what exactly is jatropha, and what has a 'reality check' on its potential revealed? ... marginal land and in drought conditions. As for ...
[113]
A review of the sustainability of Jatropha cultivation projects for ...
Aug 1, 2017 · Jatropha production is associated with environmental impacts such as loss of biodiversity, high water requirements and high carbon debts ...
[114]
Insufficient Evidence of Jatropha curcas L. Invasiveness
Dec 19, 2021 · Invasiveness potential was assessed through (i) detecting evidence of natural regeneration in perimeters around J. curcas plantations and live ...Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[115]
[PDF] Insufficient Evidence of Jatropha curcas L. Invasiveness
Abstract Biofuel plants such as Jatropha curcas L. have potential to support the livelihoods of rural communities and contribute to sustainable rural ...
[116]
Invasiveness risk of the tropical biofuel crop Jatropha curcas L. into ...
Oct 16, 2012 · These findings show that J. curcas seeds may be dispersed by animals to adjacent land use systems, but no natural recruitment was observed.
[117]
Global Investment Failures and Transformations: A Review of Hyped ...
Mexico is known as the “home” of Jatropha, but the potential of Jatropha in producing biofuels was unknown until the early 1990s. The renewal in interest in ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[118]
Biofuels: jatropha still linked to 'land grabbing and displacement of ...
Jan 26, 2011 · ... jatropha is 'failing to deliver on its promises while simultaneously failing to prevent climate change or contribute to pro-poor development.Missing: failures | Show results with:failures
[119]
Ghost biofuel projects: Abandoned Jatropha Curcas plantations and ...
Mar 31, 2025 · in the Lower Senegal River Valley: story of a failure. Tropicultura, 30(4). Tufa, F. A., Amsalu, A., & Zoomers, E. B. (2018). Failed promises: ...
[120]
Investigating factors responsible for farmers' abandonment of ...
The study showed that most of the smallholder farmers in Chibombo District have abandoned Jatropha cultivation due to lack of market and non-profitability of ...
[121]
Environmental Impacts of Jatropha curcas Biodiesel in India - NIH
Overall, this study shows that the use of Jatropha curcas biodiesel generally reduces the global warming potential and the nonrenewable energy demand as ...
[122]
The potential impact of invasive woody oil plants on protected areas ...
Jan 18, 2018 · We simulated the current and future potential distributions of three invasive woody oil plants, Jatropha curcas, Ricinus communis, and Aleurites ...
[123]
Jatropha Fails to Deliver in Burma | EarthRights International
Jan 29, 2011 · The projects have little, if any, benefit for local people, and often result in forced labor, threats, land confiscations, and the degradation ...
[124]
[PDF] Losing the plot - Friends of the Earth International
As a non-food crop, jatropha was recommended as not affecting food supplies. It would create jobs in rural areas, driving development, the government claimed.
[125]
Land Grabbing and Jatropha in India: An Analysis of 'Hyped ... - MDPI
But generally, the “extraordinary collapse” [78] of jatropha is attributed to the fact that it failed to meet expectations [79]. Yet not only did it fail to ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[126]
Jatropha curcas L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
The native range of this species is Mexico to Tropical America. It is a shrub or tree and grows primarily in the seasonally dry tropical biome.
[127]
the plant - Jatropha
Jatropha curcas grows almost anywhere , even on gravelly, sandy and saline soils. It can thrive on the poorest stony soil. It can grow even in the crevices of ...
[128]
Jatropha curcas - Lucid key
An upright (i.e. erect) shrub or small tree usually growing 2-4 m tall. This species often loses its leaves during the dry season (i.e. it is deciduous).
[129]
Why do farmers abandon jatropha cultivation? The case of Chiapas ...
We analyse the factors that influence farmers' decision to abandon jatropha cultivation by using a generalized linear modelling approach in combination with ...
[130]
Jatropha Poisoning in Children - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Despite its medicinal uses, the plant is harmful due to presence of toxalbumin called curcin, ricin and cyanic acid, related to ricinoleic acid. ... Jatropha ...Missing: mechanism | Show results with:mechanism
[131]
Jatropha curcas seed oil for possible human consumption
The presence of toxic compounds, specifically phorbol esters (PEs), in Jatropha curcas seed oil (JCSO) has blocked its use for human consumption.
[132]
https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Jatropha+multifida
[133]
Jatropha multifida - Plant Finder - Missouri Botanical Garden
Culture. Winter hardy to USDA Zones 10-12 where it is easily grown in slightly fertile, rocky or sandy, well-drained soils in full sun to light shade.Missing: integerrima podagrica gossypiifolia
[134]
Jatropha multifida - National Parks Board (NParks)
Medicinal: All parks of the plant have been widely used in traditional folk medicine in many parts of West Africa. The seeds haven been used as a purgative, ...Missing: integerrima podagrica<|separator|>
[135]
https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Jatropha+gossypiifolia
[136]
Jatropha podagrica (Bottle Euphorbia, Buddha Belly, Buddha Belly ...
Grow this plant in sun to partial shade in well-drained soils in a pot with several drainage holes. Allow the soil to dry between waterings. In fall the leaves ...Missing: agronomy | Show results with:agronomy
[137]
Jatropha podagrica Hook. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
It is a caudex shrub and grows primarily in the seasonally dry tropical biome. It is used as a poison and a medicine and has environmental uses.
[138]
ENH478/ST319: Jatropha integerrima: Peregrina - University of Florida
This slender-stemmed, multi-trunked tropical evergreen tree or large shrub, a native of Cuba, reaches 15 feet in height with an equal spread.Missing: ornamental | Show results with:ornamental
[139]
Jatropha integerrima (peregrina) | CABI Compendium
Jatropha integerrima is a shrub to small tree native to Cuba, which has been introduced into tropical and subtropical areas worldwide as an ornamental species.