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Trampolining

Trampolining, also known as trampoline gymnastics, is a competitive Olympic sport in which athletes perform a series of acrobatic skills, including somersaults, twists, and flips, while rebounding on a rectangular trampoline to heights of up to 10 meters.^[1] The sport emphasizes precision in takeoffs and landings, with routines judged on factors such as time of flight, horizontal displacement, difficulty, and execution.^[2] Falls during a routine result in its immediate termination, requiring athletes to maintain continuous bounces without interruption.^[1] The trampoline was invented in 1934 by George Nissen, inspired by circus performers using safety nets, and initially served as a training tool for tumblers, astronauts, and athletes in sports like diving, gymnastics, and freestyle skiing.^[3] The first U.S. National Championships were held in 1948, followed by the inaugural World Championships in 1964 in London, organized by the Fédération Internationale de Trampoline (FIT).^[2] Trampolining was recognized as a discipline by the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) in 1999 and made its Olympic debut at the 2000 Sydney Games, featuring individual men's and women's events since then.^[2]^[3] Competitions in trampolining are governed by FIG and include four main categories: individual trampoline, synchronized trampoline (pairs performing identical routines), double mini-trampoline (a sloped runway leading to a trampoline for shorter routines), and tumbling (performed on a sprung track).^[1] Olympic events focus solely on individual routines, while World Championships and World Cups encompass all categories, with annual events except in Olympic years.^[1] The equipment consists of a standardized trampoline measuring 5.23 m × 2.91 m with a 1.15 m frame height, surrounded by safety mats, and a spotter system for competitions.^[4] Notable achievements include Canada's Rosie MacLennan with two Olympic gold medals in the women's event (2012, 2016), while in Paris 2024, Great Britain's Bryony Page won women's gold and Belarus's Ivan Litvinovich defended his men's title; China has dominated World Championships, winning multiple golds from 2007 to 2015 and the individual titles in 2025.^[3]^[2]^[5]^[6] The sport promotes physical development through age-group programs emphasizing safe progression and technical testing, contributing to its growth as both a recreational activity and elite discipline.^[7]

History

Invention and Early Development

The origins of trampolining trace back to ancient and early practices involving rebounding surfaces. Indigenous Inuit communities in the Arctic regions, including Alaska, utilized walrus skins stretched taut as a form of "blanket toss" or nalukataq, where participants were propelled into the air for hunting scouting or celebratory games, a tradition documented in early 20th-century ethnographic records.^[8] In the 19th century, circus performers adopted safety nets made of interwoven ropes or canvas to cushion falls from trapeze acts, allowing aerialists to rebound and extend their routines, which served as a direct conceptual precursor to controlled bouncing devices.^[9] A more immediate technological antecedent emerged in 1887 with the invention of the Browder life net by Thomas F. Browder, a canvas-and-steel-frame device patented for firefighters to catch individuals leaping from burning buildings, providing elastic rebound similar to later trampolines.^[10] The modern trampoline was invented in the early 1930s by George Nissen, a gymnast and University of Iowa student, who drew inspiration from circus trapeze artists bouncing on safety nets during a 1930 performance in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, and from competitive divers practicing aerial maneuvers.^[9] Between 1935 and 1936, Nissen collaborated with his gymnastics coach Larry Griswold to construct the first viable prototype in a garage, featuring a rectangular steel frame scavenged from junkyards, a taut canvas bed, and coiled springs sourced from automotive parts for elasticity.^[11] This design enabled sustained, controlled rebounds, marking a shift from passive safety devices to an active training apparatus. In 1937, Nissen embarked on a promotional tour across the United States with Griswold, demonstrating the device at fairs, schools, and athletic events to showcase its potential for acrobatic practice; during an extension to Mexico, Nissen encountered the Spanish term "el trampolín" (meaning diving board or springboard) and anglicized it to "trampoline," trademarking the name in 1945 alongside a U.S. patent for the "tumbling device."^[9] Early adoption focused on utility rather than recreation, with the U.S. Navy incorporating trampolines in the 1940s for pilot and paratrooper training to simulate disorientation and enhance spatial awareness during World War II.^[12] By the 1950s, the device gained traction in sports training programs, aiding tumblers and gymnasts in perfecting flips and twists, as well as divers in rehearsing somersaults without water entry, and even Soviet and American space agencies used it to acclimate astronauts to microgravity transitions.^[9] This foundational period laid the groundwork for trampolining's evolution into a competitive sport by the 1960s.

Establishment as a Competitive Sport

Trampolining gained formal recognition as a competitive discipline in 1964 when the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) acknowledged it as an official sport, paving the way for structured international events.^[2] This recognition facilitated the establishment of the International Trampoline Federation (FIT) in 1964, which organized the inaugural Trampoline World Championships that same year in London, England, marking the sport's entry into global competition.^[2] In the United States, the first national championships were held in 1948, further solidifying trampolining's competitive foundation domestically.^[13] During the 1970s and 1990s, trampolining experienced substantial growth, with the formation of numerous national federations worldwide under the FIT's umbrella, expanding participation from Europe and North America to other regions.^[14] This period also saw the introduction of additional disciplines, including synchronized trampoline, which debuted at the World Championships in 1965 as a mixed team event before evolving into separate competitions, and double mini-trampoline, developed in 1970 and featured prominently at the 1976 Trampoline Gymnastics Age Group World Championships.^[15]^[16] A pivotal milestone occurred in 1999 with the merger of the FIT into the FIG, integrating trampolining fully as a FIG discipline and enabling its inclusion in the Olympic program.^[2] This merger also encompassed tumbling and power tumbling, which became official FIG events within trampoline gymnastics, broadening the sport's scope and competitive structure.^[17] Consequently, individual trampoline debuted as a medal event at the 2000 Sydney Olympics, elevating the sport's international profile.^[2]

Equipment and Setup

Trampoline Specifications

Competition trampolines adhere to strict standards set by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) to ensure consistency, safety, and performance in international events.^[4] The bed, which provides the jumping surface, measures approximately 4.28 meters in length by 2.14 meters in width under tension, offering a rectangular area optimized for controlled rebounds during routines.^[18]^[19] The frame stands at a height of 1.15 meters from the ground, with interior dimensions of about 5.05 meters long by 2.91 meters wide, constructed from reinforced galvanized steel for durability and stability.^[20]^[21] The frame features rounded edges with a minimum radius of 15 mm and is covered by padded skirting to minimize injury risk during falls. The bed itself is made of woven polypropylene fabric, selected for its high tensile strength, UV resistance, and ability to deliver uniform bounce without excessive elasticity. This material is attached to the frame via 110 to 118 high-tension coil springs, including reinforced corner springs, which provide the precise rebound force essential for competitive gymnastics.^[22]^[23]^[24] In contrast to competitive models, recreational trampolines are typically smaller and round, with diameters ranging from 3 to 5 meters (such as common 12-foot or 14-foot backyard units), designed for casual use and complying with ASTM F381 safety specifications for consumer products. These feature similar galvanized steel frames and polypropylene beds but with fewer springs (often 72 to 108) and enclosures for added containment.^[25]^[26] Competition setups include end decks at both ends of the trampoline, consisting of approximately 2-meter by 3-meter padded platforms with wedge-shaped mats for safe mounting, dismounting, and spotting by coaches.^[27] These decks integrate with the overall apparatus, featuring shock-absorbing springs and foam padding to support athletes during training and events.^[28]^[29]

Safety Features

Safety features in trampolining encompass a range of protective measures designed to minimize hazards during use, including padding, enclosures, spatial requirements, and structural certifications. These elements ensure the trampoline's frame, springs, and surrounding areas provide adequate cushioning and containment, while venue setups prevent collisions and falls. Padding requirements mandate the use of shock-absorbing foam pads to cover the frame, springs, and end decks fully, preventing direct contact that could cause injury. According to the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) Apparatus Norms (Edition 2023), frame and spring padding must be 3.0–5.0 cm thick with a foam density of 30 kg/m³ (±3 kg/m³) and tensile strength of at least 260 kPa, extending up to 6 cm over the bed without touching it during use.^[4]^[22] For enhanced protection around the apparatus, safety mats of 20 cm thickness (±1 cm) are required, often placed at end decks and platforms to absorb impacts, with compression stress around 70 kPa (±15 kPa at 40% deformation).^[18] The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) F381-16 standard similarly requires frame padding to undergo shock attenuation testing, ensuring it mitigates impact forces effectively, though specific thickness is determined by performance criteria rather than fixed dimensions.^[25] Enclosure nets serve as a barrier to contain users within the jumping area, reducing the risk of falls off the trampoline. For recreational use, these nets are optional but strongly recommended, while they are required in commercial settings like trampoline parks to comply with safety regulations. Standards typically specify heights of 2–3 m to accommodate high bounces, with ASTM F381 outlining performance requirements for net materials, connections, and stability to withstand dynamic loads without failure.^[30] Venue specifications emphasize adequate height and spacing to allow safe aerial maneuvers. Competition halls must have an interior height of 8–10 m, with FIG norms requiring at least 10 m for senior synchronized events and 8 m for age-group competitions to provide vertical clearance. A minimum 4 m clearance around the trampoline is essential, often achieved through 200 cm-wide safety mats encircling the apparatus to create a buffer zone free of obstructions. Spotters, equipped with dedicated mats (e.g., 164 cm x 113 cm x 14 cm), are mandatory during training sessions to assist in case of loss of control, ensuring immediate intervention.^[31] For outdoor trampolines, ground anchoring is crucial to prevent tipping or displacement from wind or uneven surfaces, typically involving stakes or auger anchors secured to the legs or frame. Non-slip surfaces, such as rubberized mats or textured bases under the equipment, further enhance stability by reducing slippage on grass, soil, or concrete. Certification under ASTM F381 ensures consumer trampolines meet rigorous safety benchmarks, including static load testing where the frame withstands 360 lbf (1.6 kN) applied simultaneously at four locations (total equivalent force over 650 kg) without permanent deformation or failure, verifying durability for multiple users.^[30] Compliance also covers assembly instructions, labeling for hazards, and overall design integrity to support safe recreational and competitive use.

Fundamental Skills

Basic Jumps and Positions

Basic jumps and positions form the foundation of trampolining, emphasizing controlled takeoffs, mid-air alignment, and safe landings to develop body awareness and rebound efficiency. These skills prioritize vertical motion and centering on the trampoline bed to minimize travel and maximize height, serving as building blocks for more complex maneuvers. Proper execution reduces injury risk by distributing impact forces evenly across the body and apparatus.^[32] The straight jump involves a vertical takeoff from the feet, with the body fully extended—legs together, arms raised overhead, and head neutral—to achieve a controlled landing on both feet simultaneously at the bed's center, known as the crosshair. Feet should land shoulder-width apart with knees slightly bent to absorb impact, ensuring no forward or backward travel. This position promotes straight posture and is essential for maintaining rebound trajectory.^[32]^[33] In the seat landing, or seat drop, the performer lands on the buttocks with legs extended forward and hands placed beside the hips for support, forming a 90-degree angle at the hips and knees. The shoulders remain behind the hips, and fingers point forward with arms slightly bent to cushion the drop. To transition back to feet, the hands push down while kicking the legs forward and upward, returning to a standing position without excessive bed travel. This skill teaches rotational control and hip extension.^[32]^[33] The front landing, or front drop, requires landing on the stomach with arms extended forward, elbows locked at 90 degrees, and hands positioned near the face to protect the head. The entire body contacts the bed simultaneously upon descent, with hips pushing upward and backward during takeoff for proper rotation. Recovery to feet involves a kick-out motion, extending the body to rebound vertically while staying centered. Elbows and knees align at 90 degrees on impact to distribute force evenly.^[32]^[33] For the back landing, or back drop, the takeoff opens the hips with arms at the sides, allowing the body to pike slightly on descent before landing flat on the back, head neutral, and legs vertical. Arms extend overhead post-landing to facilitate a roll or extension back to feet by thrusting the hips forward. This position demands precise timing to avoid hyperextension and ensures controlled impact across the upper back and shoulders.^[32]^[33] The hands-and-knees landing involves simultaneous contact of hands and knees on the bed, with hips and knees positioned behind the feet and the stomach held above the feet line to maintain alignment. This controlled drop absorbs impact through bent elbows and knees, preventing joint stress, and requires no bed travel for stability. It builds coordination for multi-point support.^[32] Takeoff mechanics in basic jumps rely on centering efforts on the trampoline's crosshair, where the bed's elasticity is greatest, enabling maximum rebound height through a powerful leg push-off—bending the knees and ankles to preload the springs before explosive extension. This technique, combined with arm swings for momentum, can propel performers up to 8-10 meters in advanced applications, though beginners focus on control over height.^[32]^[34] These foundational elements integrate briefly with aerial shapes, such as tucks, by maintaining core alignment during flight to transition smoothly into landings.^[32]

Aerial Shapes

Aerial shapes in trampolining encompass the distinct body configurations assumed during the flight phase of jumps, serving to cultivate coordination, body control, and readiness for advanced acrobatic sequences. These positions are executed at the apex of the jump, where the performer transitions from an upright takeoff into the specified shape before unfolding to land on the feet. Fundamental aerial shapes include the tuck, pike, straddle, and layout, each governed by precise biomechanical criteria to promote safe and effective performance.^[35]^[36] The tuck shape involves pulling the knees toward the chest, with the thighs drawn close to the upper body to form an angle of 135° or less between the upper body and thighs, and another 135° or less between the thighs and lower legs. The hands grasp the shins or legs below the knees to secure the compact form, which is typically held during the airborne phase to enable tighter rotational dynamics. This position emphasizes folded compactness, aiding in the development of rotational awareness.^[35]^[37]^[38] In the pike shape, the hips flex to create an angle of 135° or less between the upper body and thighs, while the legs remain straight and the angle between the thighs and lower legs exceeds 135°. The performer reaches forward with the hands to touch the legs below the knees, keeping the thighs proximate to the torso for a streamlined fold. This configuration demands greater flexibility than the tuck and is instrumental in building hip control and extension timing.^[35]^[36]^[38] The straddle shape features the legs extended straight and separated wide, at least shoulder width apart—with the toes pointed and the upper body held upright or piked forward at the hips by more than 45°. The arms extend forward or to the sides to accentuate the lateral stretch, promoting balance and leg independence. This open-legged position enhances lateral stability and prepares performers for divergent limb movements.^[36]^[37]^[39] The layout shape maintains a straight, horizontal body alignment during flight, with the angle between the upper body and thighs greater than 135°, the legs together, and toes pointed to form a seamless line from head to feet. Often slightly arched for aesthetic extension, this position is essential for somersault preparation, as it allows for controlled opening and closing transitions. Layout execution fosters full-body tension and spatial orientation.^[35]^[37]^[36] Basic combinations integrate these shapes into simple jumps without added rotation or twist, such as the tuck jump—where the body tucks mid-air before unfolding to land feet-first—the pike jump, which holds the piked form before extension, and the straddle jump, featuring wide leg separation followed by closure upon landing. These exercises emphasize shape initiation near the jump's peak and controlled descent.^[36]^[38]^[37] Progression in aerial shapes focuses on sustaining the position at the flight's apex to refine timing and muscle memory, gradually increasing hold duration to approximately 0.5 to 1 second as control improves. This methodical practice builds the precision needed for seamless integration into more demanding routines. These shapes also contribute to stable basic landings by reinforcing aligned body positioning upon recontact with the trampoline bed.^[40]^[38]

Competitive Disciplines

Individual Trampoline

Individual trampoline is the core solo discipline in competitive trampoline gymnastics, performed on a rectangular trampoline measuring approximately 5.25 by 2.95 meters, where athletes execute a series of aerial maneuvers emphasizing height, difficulty, and precise execution. Unlike synchronized trampoline, which involves paired performers mirroring movements, individual routines highlight personal control and vertical projection to maximize flight time and skill complexity. This format debuted as an Olympic event in 2000 and remains a staple at major international competitions governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG).^[35]^[41] A standard routine consists of 10 consecutive skills, starting and ending on the feet in an upright position on the trampoline bed, with a controlled out-bounce permitted after the final element. These skills incorporate forward and backward somersaults, with or without twisting up to 3.5 rotations, and various saltos to demonstrate difficulty. Representative examples include the full twisting double back somersault, a backward double somersault with one full twist, and the Randi, a forward somersault with a half twist transitioning into a front double somersault. The sequence must flow continuously without interruption, showcasing consistent height and form throughout.^[35] Height achievement is central to the discipline, evaluated through electronic measurement of the total time of flight—the aggregate duration spent airborne across the 10 skills—which directly influences the score by rewarding greater vertical displacement. Qualification to finals occurs via the top 8 athletes from preliminary rounds, determined by their highest combined scores from difficulty and execution across one or two routines. Competitions feature distinct men's and women's divisions, with separate events at the Olympic Games and FIG World Championships to account for physiological differences in power and technique.^[35]^[41]

Synchronized Trampoline

Synchronized trampoline is a competitive discipline in trampoline gymnastics where two athletes, typically of the same gender, perform identical routines simultaneously on adjacent trampolines positioned parallel and 2 meters apart. The pairs execute a voluntary routine consisting of 10 elements, including a combination of forward and backward somersaults with or without twists, such as double twisting triples, ensuring no repetition of skills within the routine. Both gymnasts must begin facing the same direction, though the direction of twists may differ, and the performance emphasizes mirrored execution to demonstrate harmony and control.^[42]^[43] The core challenge lies in the synchronization demands, where partners must match the timing, height, and amplitude of their movements precisely, with no physical contact permitted between them or the trampolines. Synchronization is evaluated electronically through video analysis at up to 240 frames per second, focusing on landing time differences per element; for instance, a deviation of 5-8 frames (approximately 0.05-0.08 seconds at 100 fps) incurs a 0.02-point deduction per landing, escalating to 1.0 point for larger discrepancies, while differences exceeding 0.4 seconds result in an interruption. Height and amplitude are indirectly assessed via time-of-flight measurements and execution scores, rewarding consistent matching that maintains the routine's flow. Deductions for phase differences in skill execution further penalize any lack of unison, contributing to a separate synchronization score out of 20 points (doubled from a maximum of 10).^[42]^[44]^[45] In competitions governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG), qualification for synchronized trampoline follows a multi-round format similar to individual events: all pairs compete in Qualifying Round 1 with two routines (best score counts), advancing the top 16 or 24 to Qualifying Round 2, from which the top 8 pairs proceed to the final, limited to one pair per nation. Mixed-gender pairs are permitted in select events, including world championships since their recent inclusion. This discipline was introduced to the Trampoline Gymnastics World Championships in 1972, adding a team-oriented element to the sport's competitive structure.^[42]^[44]^[46]

Double Mini-Trampoline

The double mini-trampoline (DMT) is a dynamic discipline within trampoline gymnastics, where athletes perform acrobatic routines using a specialized apparatus that combines a run-up for acceleration, a dual-section rebounding bed for aerial maneuvers, and a padded landing area for dismounts. Developed in the 1970s, DMT emphasizes power, precision, and height in short, explosive sequences, distinguishing it from longer, continuous routines in other trampoline events. The apparatus enables gymnasts to execute somersaults and twists with minimal contacts, focusing on amplitude and form during two sequential passes.^[47] The DMT apparatus features a run-up track measuring 22.5 m in length and 1 m in width, providing a non-slip surface for building speed during the approach. The rebounding bed, constructed with a woven nylon or polypropylene surface tensioned by springs, measures 2.85 m in length and 0.92 m in width under tension, with the mounting end elevated to 0.45 m and the dismount end to 0.70 m from the floor. The bed includes a sloped section at the front for the initial mount and a flat central zone for the connecting skill, flanked by penalty markers to define legal performance areas. The landing mat, positioned behind the bed, is 6 m long, 3 m wide, and 0.3 m thick, with zoned markings (A, B, and C) to evaluate landing position and apply deductions for out-of-bounds falls. All components must meet International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) standards for safety, including padded frames and anti-slip bases to minimize injury risk.^[4]^[48]^[49] Each DMT routine comprises two passes, performed consecutively without pause, where the athlete hurdles onto the sloped bed for a mount, executes a brief skill on the flat bed (with a maximum of three contacts total per pass), and dismounts with a high-flying element to the landing mat. No intermediate bounces are permitted between elements, and repetitions of skills are prohibited in qualifying rounds to encourage variety. Skills incorporate somersaults (forward, backward, or side) combined with twists, valued by difficulty tables; for instance, a back tuck mount (a backward somersault without twist) might connect to a full twist dismount (a single somersault with 360 degrees of rotation). Advanced examples include the "Miller" (a triple somersault with double twists) or a barani out (forward somersault with a half twist), limited to two elements per pass to maintain the discipline's fast-paced nature.^[35]^[47] Judging prioritizes the difficulty of elements, execution quality (including form and control), and amplitude, with particular attention to the dismount's height and length to demonstrate power generated from the run-up and bed contacts. Time of flight and maintenance of height across both passes contribute to execution scores, deducted for form breaks like arm separations or incomplete twists. While some national programs impose height thresholds for qualification, FIG international rules focus on relative amplitude without gender-specific minimums. DMT debuted as a competitive event at the 1978 FIG World Championships in Switzerland and remains a staple of World Championships and World Games, though it is not included in the Olympic program, where only individual and synchronized trampoline events are contested.^[35]^[2]

Tumbling

Tumbling, also known as power tumbling, is a dynamic discipline within trampoline gymnastics that emphasizes linear acrobatics performed on a specialized floor apparatus, distinct from rebounding events like trampoline or double mini-trampoline. Competitors execute high-speed passes along a sprung track, focusing on explosive power, rapid bounding, and precise landings rather than aerial height, with routines showcasing complex combinations of somersaults and twists. This event highlights athleticism through continuous forward, backward, or sideways movements without the use of a trampoline bed, prioritizing speed and control to maintain momentum across multiple passes.^[35] The apparatus consists of a 25 m long by 2 m wide inclined sprung track, sloped up to 2% (approximately 1.15 degrees) to facilitate acceleration, constructed with a padded, elastic surface for optimal rebound. Preceding the track is a 10 m run-up area for building initial speed, followed by a 6 m landing zone equipped with safety mats to absorb final impacts. This setup allows athletes to perform bounding sequences where each foot contacts the track briefly, generating forward propulsion without significant vertical lift, in contrast to the elevated mounts seen in double mini-trampoline dismounts. The design ensures consistent energy return while minimizing injury risk through its controlled incline and cushioned zones.^[4] A standard routine comprises 8 bounding passes, each incorporating 2 to 4 somersaults combined with twists, such as a triple back somersault with 2.5 twists, executed in rapid succession down the track without pauses. The emphasis lies on maintaining high velocity, powerful takeoffs, and stable landings on the feet or hands, with deductions for disruptions in flow or incomplete rotations. Originating from early acrobatic bouncing on mats, the discipline evolved into its modern form in the 1970s with the introduction of dedicated competitive tumbling tracks, standardizing the apparatus and rules under international governance. This progression transformed informal tumbling exhibitions into a structured sport, integrating advanced aerial techniques while retaining a focus on linear power.^[35]^[4] In competition, athletes perform 6 passes during preliminaries to qualify, with the top 2 per gender advancing to the finals where full 8-pass routines are executed for medal contention. Judging evaluates difficulty, execution, and form, rewarding seamless transitions and minimal deductions for landing instability or rhythm breaks. This format ensures a progression from qualifying showcases of core skills to high-stakes finals emphasizing comprehensive difficulty and precision.^[35]

Competition Format and Rules

Event Structure

Trampolining competitions follow a structured progression designed to ensure fair advancement while maintaining safety and competitive integrity across various international events. In the Olympic Games, only individual trampoline events for men and women are contested, with 16 athletes per gender participating in qualifications.^[41] During qualifications, each athlete performs two routines—one compulsory focusing on execution and one voluntary incorporating difficulty—scored on execution, difficulty, and time of flight, with the top eight advancing to the final based on aggregate scores.^[35] The final consists of a single voluntary routine for each qualifier, with scores reset to zero and no carryover from qualifications; the starting order is determined by qualification ranking, lowest to highest.^[35] At the World Championships, a multi-day format applies to senior athletes, incorporating preliminary rounds, semi-finals, and finals for individual and synchronized trampoline, double mini-trampoline (DMT), and tumbling disciplines. In individual trampoline, qualifications (Q1) feature two exercises per athlete, with the highest score counting; the top 24 athletes (for 48+ entries) or top 16 (for 32-47 entries) advance to semi-finals (Q2), where each performs one voluntary exercise.^[35] The top eight from Q2 proceed to finals, performing one exercise, with a maximum of two athletes per national federation; scores do not carry over between rounds.^[35] Synchronized trampoline follows a similar structure, with pairs performing identical routines simultaneously. Team events occur in select years, such as at World Championships, where qualifications sum the three highest individual scores per team, and the top eight teams advance to finals consisting of three rounds with ranking points assigned (10 for first place down to 1 for eighth).^[35] Each competition phase includes a brief warm-up period to prepare athletes without influencing performance outcomes. For trampoline events, athletes receive 45 seconds of warm-up time per routine, consisting of one touch on the apparatus immediately before their turn, except in team finals where no warm-up occurs.^[35] Routines must commence within one minute of the chief judge's signal, with penalties ranging from 0.2 to 0.6 points for delays up to 180 seconds, after which the athlete is disqualified; the routine itself has no fixed duration but typically involves 10 contacts within the bed area.^[35] Safety spotters are positioned around the trampoline during training and all competition rounds, including finals, to assist if needed without touching during a routine, which interrupts the exercise and voids affected elements.^[35] Competitions maintain separate progression tracks for each discipline—individual trampoline, synchronized trampoline, DMT, and tumbling—to accommodate their unique requirements, such as DMT's two-element sequences or tumbling's passes along a track. Age groups structure participation, with junior categories typically for athletes aged 14-17, featuring restricted difficulty in early qualifications (e.g., one routine with special requirements and no difficulty score) to support development, while seniors (18+) perform fully voluntary routines throughout.^[50] World Age Group Competitions extend this to broader categories like 11-12 (AG1) and 13-14 (AG2), with top eight advancing directly from qualifications to finals without semi-finals.^[50]

Judging Criteria

In trampoline gymnastics competitions governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG), judging criteria emphasize the qualitative evaluation of performers' technique, control, and precision during routines. Judges assess execution, which encompasses body form, positional accuracy, and consistency throughout each element, applying deductions on a scale of 0.0 to 0.5 points per skill for identified form breaks.^[51] For instance, minor deviations such as leg separation during a straight or pike position incur a 0.1-point deduction, while more significant errors like an incomplete twist—where the performer fails to complete the intended rotation—result in a 0.3-point deduction.^[51] These deductions ensure that routines demonstrate clean lines, stable body control, and adherence to defined shapes, with the maximum penalty per element capped at 0.5 point to reflect overall performance quality.^[35] Difficulty evaluation forms another core criterion, where a dedicated panel assigns a degree of difficulty (DD) value to each element based on its technical complexity, as outlined in the FIG tariff tables. A double back somersault (tucked, no twist), for example, is valued at 1.0 DD, with more advanced variations like a double back straight receiving up to 2.4 DD.^[35] Senior routines typically achieve total difficulties around 6.0 to 7.0 DD, encouraging balanced programs that combine high-risk maneuvers without excessive repetition.^[51] This assessment prioritizes the integration of somersaults, twists, and positional changes to reward innovative yet executable sequences. Judges also visually evaluate airtime and height for consistency and amplitude, penalizing inconsistencies that affect the routine's flow. Under-rotation, where a performer lands short of the intended orientation (e.g., on the seat or knees instead of feet), draws penalties ranging from 0.3 to 1.0 points depending on severity, as it compromises landing stability and overall control.^[51] In synchronized trampoline events, an additional focus is on phase and amplitude matching between partners, with deductions up to 1.0 point per element for desynchronization in timing or height differences that disrupt unison.^[35] The judging panel for trampoline events consists of six execution judges who score form and deductions, two difficulty judges who evaluate DD values, and electronic measurement for time-of-flight.^[51] This structure, as defined in FIG rules, promotes objective and multifaceted assessment across disciplines.

Scoring System

In trampoline gymnastics competitions governed by the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG), the scoring system for individual events combines multiple components to evaluate performance comprehensively. For qualification rounds, each routine is scored using the formula: Execution (E) + Difficulty (D) + Horizontal Displacement (H) + Time of Flight (T) - Penalties (P), where E has a maximum of 20 points, H a maximum of 10 points, D is the sum of element difficulties with no upper limit, and T is the electronically measured total time airborne.^[35] Competitors perform two voluntary routines in qualifications, and the sum of these scores determines ranking and advancement to subsequent rounds or finals.^[35] In finals, difficulty is excluded to emphasize execution quality, resulting in the simplified formula: E + H + T - P. The execution score is derived from six judges who assess form, control, and landing faults per element, taking the median deduction from each pair of judges (after dropping the highest and lowest overall), then averaging and subtracting from the 20-point maximum; deductions range from 0.1 to 0.5 points per fault, up to 0.5 point for major errors per element.^[35] Horizontal displacement evaluates landing position relative to the trampoline center across zones, with deductions of 0.0 to 0.3 points per element subtracted from the 10-point maximum.^[35] Time of flight is measured electronically for each of the routine's contacts (typically 10 elements), averaging the airborne duration in 1/100 seconds and adding the total directly to the score without a fixed maximum.^[35] For synchronized trampoline, the formula adapts to pair performance: average Execution (E, max 10 points per gymnast) + Difficulty (D) + Horizontal Displacement (H, max 10 points average) + Synchronization (S, max 20 points) - Penalties (P). The synchronization score starts at a maximum of 10 points, with deductions for timing differences (e.g., 0.02 points per 0.05-second discrepancy in landings), then doubled to reach the 20-point cap; execution is averaged across both gymnasts after median deductions from 10 points each.^[35] Tie-breaking prioritizes higher difficulty scores, followed by execution, then time of flight, and finally horizontal displacement; if unresolved, the competitor with the lower total penalties advances.^[35] Common penalties include 1.0 point for falls outside the trampoline bed and 0.5 to 1.0 points for out-of-bounds landings or major disruptions, applied by the chief judge panel.^[35]

Records and Achievements

World Records

In trampolining, world records are maintained by the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) and encompass highest scores in qualification and finals across disciplines, as well as specialized metrics like time of flight (TOF). These records reflect peak performances at major events such as the World Championships, with updates tracked through official FIG competitions.^[52] At the 2025 World Championships in Pamplona, Spain, China dominated the individual events, with Wang Zisai winning the men's gold and Hu Yicheng the women's gold.^[53] In double mini-trampoline (DMT), Melania Rodriguez of Spain defended her title in the women's final, securing her second consecutive world championship.^[54] FIG continues to update these records through ongoing World Championships and World Cups.^[52]

Olympic and Major Event Highlights

Trampolining made its Olympic debut at the 2000 Sydney Games, marking the first time the discipline was contested as an official event with equal representation for men and women, featuring 16 athletes per gender.^[3] In the men's individual final, Aleksandr Moskalenko of Russia secured gold with a score of 41.7, edging out Australia's Ji Wallace for silver.^[55] The women's event saw Irina Karavaeva of Russia claim the inaugural gold medal with 38.9 points, followed by silver for Oksana Tsyhuleva of Ukraine.^[56] At the 2008 Beijing Olympics, China achieved a historic sweep of the individual trampoline golds, underscoring the nation's rising dominance in the sport. Lu Chunlong won the men's title with 41.0 points, while He Wenna took gold in the women's competition.^[57] This double victory highlighted China's investment in trampolining training programs, setting a benchmark for future international competitions.^[58] The 2024 Paris Olympics featured standout performances that celebrated perseverance and technical excellence. In the women's individual final, Great Britain's Bryony Page captured gold with a score of 56.750, completing her collection of Olympic medals after previous silver and bronze finishes.^[59] The men's event was won by Ivan Litvinovich of the Individual Neutral Athletes, who defended his Tokyo title and became the first man to win consecutive Olympic golds in trampolining.^[60] The 2025 Trampoline Gymnastics World Championships in Pamplona, Spain, showcased strong performances across disciplines, with the United States dominating double mini-trampoline events. Ruben Padilla of the USA claimed gold in the men's double mini-trampoline, marking his third consecutive world title in the discipline.^[61] New Zealand's athletes excelled in synchronized trampoline, with Maddie Davidson and Dylan Schmidt securing fourth place in the mixed synchro final, narrowly missing the podium.^[62] A key milestone at the 2025 Worlds was Padilla's silver medal in the men's individual trampoline final, the first such achievement for a U.S. man in 51 years and highlighting a resurgence in American trampolining.^[63] Since its Olympic inception in 2000, trampolining has maintained gender equity in event structures, with identical individual formats for men and women at every Games.^[3]

Safety Considerations

Common Injuries and Risks

Trampolining is associated with a significant number of injuries, particularly in recreational settings. In the United States, approximately 100,000 individuals seek emergency room treatment annually for trampoline-related injuries as of recent estimates up to 2023, with the majority occurring among children. Between 2009 and 2018, over 800,000 children sustained such injuries, leading to medical costs estimated at $1 billion for emergency visits during a similar period from 2002 to 2011. About 80% of these injuries affect children under 16 years old, and approximately 20–30% require surgical intervention, including spinal fractures.^[64]^[65]^[66] The most prevalent injuries involve soft tissue damage and skeletal trauma. Sprains and strains, often affecting the ankles and knees, account for around 33-40% of cases, typically resulting from twists or awkward landings. Fractures, particularly in the wrists and arms, comprise about 25% of injuries and frequently stem from falls onto the trampoline frame or mat. Head injuries, including concussions, represent approximately 15% of incidents, commonly due to falls from height or collisions. These patterns are drawn from large-scale analyses of emergency department data spanning over a decade.^[67]^[68]^[69] Key risks exacerbate these injury types, with multiple jumpers contributing to up to 75% of cases through collisions that lead to falls or impacts. Over-rotation during aerial maneuvers, such as failed somersaults, often results in axial loading on the spine, increasing the likelihood of cervical or thoracic injuries. Demographically, 90% of injuries occur in recreational environments like backyard trampolines, where supervision may be inconsistent. Recent trends show trampoline parks contributing to a growing share of injuries, with rates of 1.14 per 1,000 jumper-hours as of 2023, including 11% significant cases requiring medical attention beyond the park. In contrast, competitive athletes face heightened risks of chronic overuse conditions, such as patellar tendinitis from repetitive jumping and landing stresses.^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72]

Prevention Strategies

Effective prevention of risks in trampolining relies on strict supervision protocols, particularly for younger participants. Competent adult supervision is mandatory at all times, with qualified instructors providing direct oversight during activities to ensure adherence to safety rules. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that children under 6 years old should not use trampolines at all, and supervision is required for all children. Only one jumper is permitted on the trampoline at a time to avoid collisions.^[73]^[74] In competitive and training environments, a minimum of four spotters—positioned around the trampoline—must be present to assist in case of falls or loss of control.^[75] Training protocols emphasize progressive skill development to build competence safely. Participants begin with basic jumps under instructor guidance, advancing only after mastering prerequisites, such as proper mounting and dismounting.^[75] Warm-up exercises are required to prepare muscles and joints, reducing the likelihood of strains during routines. High-risk maneuvers like somersaults or flips are restricted to supervised sessions with protective equipment, such as harnesses, and spotter support.^[76] Regular equipment inspections are essential to maintain integrity and functionality. Trampolines must be checked before each use for worn springs, tears in the bed or padding, and secure attachments, with damaged components replaced immediately.^[68] In recreational settings, enclosures with safety nets should be installed and verified for holes or gaps, while ladders are removed post-use to prevent unauthorized access. For competitions, the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) mandates padded zones around the frame and springs (3.0–5.0 cm thick), along with 20 cm safety mats encircling the apparatus and shock-absorbent end decks (7.5–20 cm thick) to cushion landings.^[4] Authoritative guidelines further outline best practices to minimize hazards. The AAP strongly advises against home trampoline use for children under 6 years due to elevated risks, recommending participation only in structured programs with professional coaching and specialized equipment.^[73] FIG regulations require all competitive venues to feature certified apparatus with anti-slip bases and clearance zones free of obstacles, ensuring uniform elasticity and no sharp edges on the trampoline bed.^[4] Educational measures reinforce safe practices through targeted instruction and awareness. Participants and guardians must complete courses or acknowledgments detailing rules, such as landing feet-first and avoiding acrobatics without training, to foster risk awareness.^[75] In recreational parks, emergency protocols—including immediate cessation of activity and medical response plans—should be posted and reviewed with users to handle incidents efficiently.^[74]

References

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None
### Prevention Strategies for Trampoline Safety