Septuagint manuscripts
The Septuagint manuscripts are the preserved handwritten copies of the Septuagint (LXX), the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), which originated in the Hellenistic Jewish community of Alexandria, Egypt, during the third and second centuries BCE.[1] These manuscripts, exceeding 1,500 in number, include fragmentary papyri from as early as the second century BCE and more complete codices from the fourth and fifth centuries CE, providing critical evidence for the textual history of the Hebrew Scriptures.[2] According to the Letter of Aristeas, a pseudepigraphic work from the second century BCE, the translation of the Pentateuch (Torah) was commissioned by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285–246 BCE) and executed by 72 Jewish scholars over 72 days on the island of Pharos, though modern scholarship dates this core translation to around 280–250 BCE.[3] Subsequent books, including historical, prophetic, and poetic texts, were translated progressively between approximately 200 and 100 BCE, likely in Alexandria for some and possibly in Palestine for others, as indicated by linguistic features and colophons in certain books like Esther.[1] The full Septuagint canon eventually encompassed the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible plus additional deuterocanonical works, serving as the primary Scripture for Greek-speaking Jews in the Diaspora and profoundly influencing early Christianity, including numerous quotations in the New Testament.[3] No autograph manuscripts survive, and the textual transmission of the Septuagint involved ongoing revisions and recensions to improve accuracy, style, or alignment with emerging Hebrew standards.[4] Key early interventions include the third-century CE Hexapla by Origen of Alexandria, which collated the Septuagint with the Hebrew text and other Greek versions, introducing asterisks and obeli to mark additions and omissions, though only fragments of this work remain.[4] Later recensions, such as those by Lucian of Antioch (fourth century CE) and Hesychius (possibly third century CE), produced distinct textual families: the Alexandrian (proto-recensional, seen in early papyri and uncials), the Lucianic (Western, more paraphrastic), and the Hexaplaric (Origen-influenced).[5] Among the most significant Septuagint manuscripts are the fourth-century Codex Vaticanus (B, Vatican Library), a vellum uncial on fine parchment containing a nearly complete Old Testament; the contemporaneous Codex Sinaiticus (ℵ, British Library), discovered at St. Catherine's Monastery and featuring the oldest complete New Testament alongside the Septuagint; and the fifth-century Codex Alexandrinus (A, British Library), which includes deuterocanonical books and shows some Western textual traits.[2] These uncial codices, originating from Egyptian scriptoria, represent the Alexandrian text-type and form the basis for modern critical editions like Rahlfs-Hanhart (1935, revised 2006), while medieval minuscules and lectionaries preserve later Byzantine recensions.[2] Discoveries such as Qumran fragments (2nd century BCE–1st century CE)[4] and Nahal Ḥever papyri (ca. 50 BCE–50 CE)[6] further illuminate pre-recensional variants, aiding textual criticism by revealing divergences from the Masoretic Text.[4]Overview
Definition and Origins
The Septuagint, often abbreviated as LXX, refers to the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and its manuscripts are the surviving physical copies of this translation, preserved on materials such as papyrus, parchment, and vellum. These manuscripts encompass not only the protocanonical books but also deuterocanonical works like Tobit and Maccabees, reflecting the broader scope of Jewish scriptural traditions in the Hellenistic period. Unlike a single standardized text, the Septuagint exists in diverse textual forms due to variations in translation approaches across books and revisional activities over centuries.[7] The origins of the Septuagint trace back to the third century BCE in Alexandria, Egypt, where Greek had become the dominant language among Jewish communities following Alexander the Great's conquests. According to the pseudepigraphic Letter of Aristeas, the translation of the Pentateuch (Torah) was commissioned by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285–246 BCE) for the Library of Alexandria, involving seventy-two (or seventy) Jewish scholars who completed the work in seventy-two days on the island of Pharos. Scholarly consensus dates the Pentateuch's translation to around 280–250 BCE, motivated by the needs of Greek-speaking Jews for liturgical and educational use, with subsequent books translated piecemeal between the late third and second centuries BCE in locations including Egypt and possibly Palestine.[3][8][1] The earliest surviving Septuagint manuscripts are fragmentary papyri from the second century BCE, such as the Rylands Papyrus 458, which contains portions of Deuteronomy, attesting to the rapid dissemination and copying of the Greek text shortly after its composition. Another key early fragment is Fouad Papyrus 266 from the first century BCE, preserving Leviticus and Deuteronomy, which provide direct evidence of the translation's textual stability in its initial phases. These papyri, discovered in Egypt, highlight the Egyptian provenance of many early witnesses, while later manuscripts from the fourth century CE onward, like the great uncials, represent recensions and Christian adaptations. The study of these manuscripts is crucial for reconstructing the Septuagint's textual history, as they predate most Hebrew Bible manuscripts and reveal divergences from the Masoretic Text.[1][9]Significance and Scope
The Septuagint manuscripts are pivotal in biblical studies, representing the earliest comprehensive translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, undertaken primarily in Alexandria from the third century BCE onward to serve the needs of Hellenistic Jews. This body of texts, known as the LXX, not only facilitated the dissemination of Jewish scriptures among Greek-speaking communities but also became the foundational Old Testament for early Christianity, profoundly shaping theological discourse and liturgical practices. Their significance lies in providing a textual witness to pre-Masoretic Hebrew traditions, often preserving readings that diverge from the later standardized Masoretic Text (MT) and align with variants attested in the Dead Sea Scrolls, thus enabling scholars to reconstruct earlier forms of the biblical text through comparative analysis.[10][11][12] In textual criticism, these manuscripts offer invaluable insights into the translation techniques, interpretive choices, and cultural adaptations of ancient Judaism, while also illuminating the Hebrew Vorlage—the underlying Hebrew source—from which they were rendered, which predates the oldest complete Masoretic manuscripts by approximately a millennium. For example, the LXX version of books like Jeremiah and Daniel exhibits structural and content differences from the MT, such as a shorter Jeremiah text, highlighting the diversity of ancient biblical traditions. Major uncial codices, including Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus from the fourth century CE, serve as primary witnesses to this pre-recensional text, underscoring the LXX's role in evaluating the reliability and evolution of the Old Testament canon.[10][11] The scope of surviving Septuagint manuscripts encompasses several hundred codices and thousands of fragments, spanning from second-century BCE papyri to medieval minuscules, with the majority dating to the fourth through sixteenth centuries CE. Early catalogs, such as that of Holmes and Parsons (early nineteenth century), enumerated 311 codices, comprising around two dozen uncials in majuscule script on vellum and over 300 cursives in minuscule script, though subsequent discoveries, including Egyptian papyri, have substantially expanded this corpus. These materials cover the full range of LXX books, from the Pentateuch and Prophets to deuterocanonical additions like Maccabees, and are dispersed across major libraries in Europe, such as the Vatican and British Library, reflecting a transmission history marked by recensions (e.g., Hesychian, Lucianic) and Christian scribal influences.[13][10] Beyond textual scholarship, the Septuagint manuscripts exerted a lasting cultural and religious impact, serving as the primary scriptural source for New Testament authors, whose Old Testament quotations—numbering over 300—align more closely with the LXX than the MT in the majority of cases, thereby embedding Greek interpretive nuances into Christian doctrine. This adoption extended to patristic writings and ancient versions like the Vetus Latina and Vulgate, influencing Western literature, art, and theology across two millennia and establishing the LXX as a bridge between Jewish and Christian scriptural heritage.[12][14]Historical Development
Translation Process and Early History
The Septuagint, often abbreviated as LXX, originated as a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, primarily for the use of Greek-speaking Jews in the Hellenistic world, particularly in Alexandria, Egypt. According to the legendary account in the Letter of Aristeas, composed around the late 2nd century BCE, Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 283–246 BCE) commissioned 72 Jewish scholars—six from each of the twelve tribes of Israel—to translate the Torah (Pentateuch) into Greek for the royal library in Alexandria. This narrative portrays the translation as a divinely inspired endeavor completed in 72 days, with the scholars working in isolation and producing identical versions, underscoring the text's authority.[14][15] However, modern scholarship views this as a pious legend rather than historical fact, emphasizing instead a more gradual process driven by the liturgical and cultural needs of the Jewish diaspora.[16] The translation process likely began in the mid-3rd century BCE with the Pentateuch, around 280–250 BCE, and extended over the following century or more to encompass the Prophets and Writings, completing the core corpus by the mid-1st century BCE. This work was undertaken by anonymous Jewish translators, possibly educated scribes familiar with both Hebrew and Greek, without standardized methods or precedents for such a large-scale biblical translation. Translation techniques varied significantly across books: some, like parts of the Pentateuch and Jeremiah, adopted a relatively literal approach, closely mirroring Hebrew syntax and vocabulary, while others, such as Isaiah, Job, and Proverbs, employed freer, more interpretive styles that incorporated paraphrases, expansions, or adaptations to Greek idioms and cultural contexts. These differences reflect the translators' efforts to make the text accessible and idiomatic in Koine Greek, the common language of the Hellenistic period, while navigating linguistic challenges like the absence of equivalent terms for Hebrew theological concepts.[15][14][17] In its early history, the Septuagint circulated widely among Hellenistic Jewish communities for worship, study, and education, filling a gap for those less proficient in Hebrew. Evidence from the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating to the 2nd century BCE–1st century CE, indicates Greek translations of books like Leviticus and Daniel coexisted with Hebrew versions in Jewish settings. By the 1st century CE, the Septuagint had become the primary Scripture for Greek-speaking Jews and early Christians, profoundly influencing the New Testament authors, who quoted it in the vast majority of Old Testament citations. Revisions emerged in the 2nd century CE, including more literal versions by Aquila of Sinope, a proselyte to Judaism, and the interpretive renderings by Symmachus and Theodotion, reflecting efforts to align the Greek text closer to emerging rabbinic Hebrew standards amid growing Jewish-Christian divergences.[15][16][14] The text's transmission continued through papyrus fragments from the 2nd century BCE and uncial codices in the 4th–5th centuries CE, such as Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, preserving its legacy despite later shifts toward Hebrew and Latin versions in Jewish and Western Christian traditions.[15][17]Transmission, Recensions, and Revisions
The transmission of Septuagint manuscripts began in Alexandria during the Hellenistic period, with the initial translation of the Pentateuch around the mid-third century BCE, followed by other books over the subsequent century. Handwritten copies on papyrus scrolls circulated among Greek-speaking Jewish communities, subject to natural textual variations from scribal practices, including errors, omissions, and minor expansions. Recent publications, such as the Oxyrhynchus Papyri volume LXXXVIII (2025), have added new third-century CE fragments of Genesis and Exodus to this evidence. By the first century CE, the Septuagint had spread beyond Egypt, as evidenced by Greek biblical fragments among the Dead Sea Scrolls, indicating its use in Judean contexts and broader Hellenistic Judaism.[18][19] With the rise of Christianity in the second century CE, the Septuagint became the primary Old Testament for Greek-speaking churches, accelerating its transmission but also introducing influences from New Testament quotations and patristic interpretations. The shift from scrolls to codices in the fourth century CE marked a pivotal change, with parchment-based uncials like Codex Vaticanus (B, fourth century) preserving relatively stable early texts, though regional divergences emerged due to isolated copying traditions in centers like Alexandria, Antioch, and Caesarea. Manuscript evidence from this era reveals a fluid textual landscape, with orthographic inconsistencies and inner-Greek corruptions compounding over generations of manual reproduction.[19][20] Recensions of the Septuagint represent deliberate editorial efforts to standardize or revise the text amid these variations, primarily by early Christian scholars in the third century CE. Origen's Hexaplaric recension, compiled around 240 CE in Caesarea, systematically compared the Septuagint with the Hebrew text and other Greek versions (Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion) in his monumental Hexapla, using asterisks and obeli to mark additions and omissions for alignment. This revision, focused on fidelity to the Hebrew, influenced subsequent copies but introduced "Hexaplaric" contamination, blending elements from multiple sources.[18][20] The Hesychian recension, associated with the Egyptian tradition and possibly linked to Bishop Hesychius of Alexandria (early fourth century), preserved a distinct Alexandrian textual stream, characterized by smoother syntax and fidelity to early Septuagint forms in books like the Prophets and Octateuch. Jerome referenced it as one of three major variants (alongside Origen's and Lucian's) in his preface to Chronicles (ca. 391 CE), though its precise boundaries and surviving witnesses remain subjects of scholarly debate, with fragments identifiable in minuscules from the ninth century onward.[20][19] The Lucianic (or Antiochene) recension, attributed to Lucian of Antioch (martyred 312 CE), emerged in the late third century and emphasized stylistic refinement, including Atticizing grammar, expanded explanations, and harmonizations across parallel passages, without strict adherence to the Hebrew. Transmitted through the Antiochene school and later Byzantine manuscripts (e.g., minuscules 19, 82, 93), it became dominant in Eastern Orthodox traditions, particularly for historical books like Kingdoms, and facilitated clearer readings for liturgical use. Proto-Lucianic elements, predating full revision, appear in second-century sources like Josephus, underscoring its roots in pre-Hexaplaric texts.[21][18] Earlier Jewish revisions, such as the Kaige recension (first century BCE), hebraized the Greek toward a proto-Masoretic Hebrew base, evident in the Nahal Hever Minor Prophets scroll (ca. 50 BCE–50 CE), influencing later Christian texts in historical books. Post-fourth-century revisions in the Byzantine era further mixed recensions, leading to the medieval minuscule tradition, where Lucianic influences prevailed in the printed editions like the Complutensian Polyglot (1514–1517). Modern critical editions, such as Rahlfs-Hanhart (2006), reconstruct the "old Greek" by eclectically weighing these recensions against Hebrew variants and patristic citations.[18][20]Classification Systems
Rahlfs' Numbering and Sigla
The Rahlfs numbering system, also known as Rahlfs' sigla, is a cataloging framework for Septuagint manuscripts developed by German philologist Alfred Rahlfs in 1914 as part of the Göttingen Septuagint project. Published in his Verzeichnis der griechischen Handschriften des Alten Testaments, the system assigns unique identifiers to over 2,000 known Greek manuscripts of the Old Testament, facilitating their reference in textual criticism and scholarly editions.[22] It emerged from the need to organize a vast corpus of manuscripts discovered since the 19th century, building on earlier catalogs like those of Holmes and Parsons (1798–1827), while adapting to new finds and prioritizing simplicity for ongoing research.[22] The system's core principle is the use of concise, unique sigla to denote each manuscript, favoring Arabic numerals for the majority due to the sheer volume of fragments and codices, while reserving single letters (A–Z) for the most significant uncial codices. Letters are not expanded into full names except in rare cases, such as "W I" for the Freer Washington Manuscript I (containing Deuteronomy and Joshua) or "Zi–vi" for the six parts of the Codex Zuqninensis. This design ensures brevity in critical apparatuses, where sigla appear alongside variant readings, and allows for straightforward expansion as new manuscripts are identified—numbers are allocated sequentially without reassigning existing ones.[22] Rahlfs organized the numerical sigla into ten groups based on manuscript type, content, and chronology, reflecting the diversity of Septuagint transmission. Group I covers lettered uncials (A–Z), such as A for the Codex Alexandrinus (5th century). Groups II (13–311) and III (312–800) address complete or substantial codices of Septuagint books excluding the Psalter, incorporating and extending Holmes-Parsons designations. Smaller fragments follow in Group IV (801–1000). Psalter-specific manuscripts are segregated into Groups V (1001–1400, up to the 12th century), VI (1401–2000, later medieval), VII (2001–3000, early fragments up to the 8th century), and X (7001 onward, additional Psalters). Broader Septuagint fragments excluding the Psalter occupy Groups VIII (3001–5000) and IX (5001–7000). This categorization aids in tracing textual families, recensions (e.g., Alexandrian, Lucianic), and material forms like papyri or vellum.[22] Examples illustrate the system's utility: Rahlfs 1 refers to the Codex Basiliano-Vaticanus (8th century, Genesis–Ruth), while Rahlfs 957 denotes a 2nd-century BCE papyrus fragment of Deuteronomy (Papyrus Rylands 458), discovered in Egypt.[22] Superscripts or modifiers, like "-N" in some apparatuses, may indicate specific witnesses or absences, but the base Rahlfs number remains the primary identifier. Maintained and updated by the Göttingen Academy, the system underpins modern editions like the Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum and remains the standard for Septuagint scholarship. As of 2023, the catalog includes approximately 2,050 manuscripts, with ongoing updates incorporating new discoveries such as fragments from Oxyrhynchus published in 2025.[22][23][24]Manuscript Categories by Material and Script
Septuagint manuscripts are primarily categorized by their writing material and script type, reflecting the evolution of production techniques from antiquity through the medieval period. The two main materials used are papyrus and parchment (also known as vellum), with papyrus dominating early fragments due to its availability in Egypt and parchment becoming prevalent for later, more durable codices. Papyrus manuscripts, typically dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE, consist mostly of small fragments or rolls, as the material is fragile and prone to decay in non-arid environments. Notable examples include the Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri, a collection of twelve manuscripts from the 3rd to 4th centuries CE containing portions of Genesis, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Ezekiel, and Daniel, discovered in Egypt and now housed in the Chester Beatty Library. These papyri provide critical early witnesses to the Septuagint text, often preserving variants not found in later copies. Another key papyrus is Rahlfs 961, a 4th-century fragment of Genesis from the Chester Beatty collection, written in a semi-uncial script on 51 leaves. In contrast, parchment manuscripts, made from treated animal skins, form the bulk of surviving complete or near-complete codices from the 4th century CE onward, offering greater longevity and allowing for larger formats like the multi-quire books seen in major uncials.[25][26] Regarding script, Septuagint manuscripts are divided into uncial (majuscule) and minuscule (cursive) hands, corresponding roughly to chronological periods and scribal practices. Uncial script, characterized by large, rounded capital letters without spaces between words, was used from the 3rd to the 10th century CE and is associated with the most significant early codices, nearly all on parchment. This script facilitated careful copying in monastic or scholarly settings and is exemplified by Codex Vaticanus (B, 4th century CE), a near-complete Septuagint on fine vellum with three columns per page, preserved in the Vatican Library. Similarly, Codex Sinaiticus (S, 4th century CE) employs uncial script on parchment across 360 leaves, including the entire Old Testament in a four-column layout, discovered at St. Catherine's Monastery. Codex Alexandrinus (A, 5th century CE), also in uncials on vellum, spans the full Septuagint and New Testament in two columns, now in the British Library. These uncials represent the pinnacle of early Septuagint transmission, with about 23 such manuscripts cataloged in early 20th-century surveys. Some early papyri, like portions of Leviticus from the 2nd century BCE (Rahlfs 801), also use proto-uncial forms, bridging pre-Christian and Christian eras.[27][2] Minuscule script, featuring smaller, connected lowercase letters with word separation, emerged around the 9th century CE and persisted through the 16th century, primarily on parchment but occasionally on paper in later copies. This cursive style enabled faster production and is found in the majority of the over 2,000 known Septuagint manuscripts, often in abbreviated or commented forms suited to liturgical use. A prominent example is Codex Venetus (V, 8th–9th century CE), a minuscule manuscript on parchment containing the Prophets with scholia, reflecting the Lucianic recension and preserved in Venice. Other minuscules, such as those numbered 14–311 in the Holmes-Parsons catalog, include partial texts like the Octateuch or Psalms, with many incorporating catenae (commentary chains) in the margins. While uncials preserve the oldest textual layers, minuscules dominate the medieval tradition, aiding in reconstructing recensions like those of Hesychius or Lucian through their regional variants. The interplay of material and script underscores the Septuagint's transmission: early papyrus uncials offer glimpses of the original translation, while later parchment minuscules document its adaptation in Byzantine Christianity.[27][13]Major Manuscripts
Key Uncials
The key uncial manuscripts of the Septuagint represent the earliest and most complete witnesses to the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, dating primarily from the 4th to 6th centuries CE and written in majuscule script on vellum codices.[28] These artifacts, often part of larger pandects including the New Testament, provide critical evidence for the textual history of the Septuagint before major recensions like those of Origen or Lucian.[29] Among them, four stand out as the "Great Uncials" due to their age, extent, and influence on modern editions: Codex Vaticanus (B), Codex Sinaiticus (א), Codex Alexandrinus (A), and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (C).[2] Other notable uncials, such as Codex Marchalianus (Q), supplement specific sections like the Prophets.[30] Codex Vaticanus, designated B, is a 4th-century manuscript originating from Egypt and housed in the Vatican Library since at least the 15th century.[31] It contains nearly the complete Septuagint on 759 leaves, excluding 1–4 Maccabees and parts of Genesis and Psalms, with a distinctive layout alternating three columns for prose and two for poetry.[28] Scholars regard it as the most reliable pre-Hexaplaric text for most books, featuring minimal corrections and a sequence placing the Prophets before the New Testament, reflecting an early Christian canon.[29] Codex Sinaiticus, symbolized as א, dates to the mid-4th century and was likely produced in Egypt or Caesarea.[2] Discovered at St. Catherine's Monastery in the 19th century by Constantin von Tischendorf, it is now dispersed across institutions including the British Library and Leipzig University Library.[32] This codex preserves the full Septuagint, with a unique four-column format for prose and two for poetry, and an unusual book order such as Major Prophets before Minor Prophets.[28] Its significance lies in offering the oldest complete Greek Bible, enabling comparisons with Hebrew sources and revealing possible Jewish scribal influences.[28] Codex Alexandrinus, known as A, is a 5th-century Egyptian manuscript that includes the majority of the Septuagint and New Testament, with additions like 1–4 Maccabees.[29] Gifted to King Charles I in 1627 and now in the British Library, it follows the tripartite Hebrew canon structure (Law, Prophets, Writings) and uses a two-column layout throughout.[2] In the Prophets, it sequences Minor before Major Prophets, differing from Vaticanus and Sinaiticus, and its text shows affinities with later recensions while preserving early readings valuable for textual criticism.[28] Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus, siglum C, is a 5th-century palimpsest from Egypt, overwritten in the 12th century with works by Ephrem the Syrian, rendering the undertext challenging to read.[33] Housed in the Bibliothèque nationale de France since 1533, it originally comprised a full Bible but now retains about 209 leaves, including Septuagint portions of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job, Wisdom, and Sirach.[34] Deciphered in the 19th century by Tischendorf using chemical methods, it provides fragmentary but important evidence of an early Alexandrian text-type, complementing the other Great Uncials despite its damaged state.[33] Codex Marchalianus (Q), a 6th-century uncial from southern Italy or the eastern Mediterranean, focuses on the Prophets and is preserved in the Vatican Library.[30] Valued for its marginal notes (hexaplaric symbols and scholia) and alignment with early Greek Isaiah fragments, it offers insights into post-Hexaplaric revisions and textual variants not found in the primary Great Uncials.[35]Prominent Papyri and Early Fragments
The earliest surviving manuscripts of the Septuagint are papyrus fragments dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE, providing crucial evidence for the text's transmission in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. These papyri, often discovered in Egyptian sites like Oxyrhynchus and the Fayum, are typically small and fragmentary due to the perishable nature of papyrus, but they offer insights into the original translation's form before the dominance of vellum codices. Unlike later uncial manuscripts, these early witnesses frequently preserve pre-Hexaplaric readings, reflecting textual variants closer to the initial Greek translations from the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE.[29] One of the most significant is Papyrus Rylands 458 (Rahlfs 957), a 2nd-century BCE fragment containing portions of Deuteronomy 23:24–28:19 in Greek. Discovered in Egypt and now housed in the John Rylands Library, Manchester, this scroll fragment is written in a formal, elegant hand typical of Ptolemaic documentary scripts, confirming its early date through paleographic analysis. Its importance lies in being the oldest extant Septuagint manuscript, predating the Dead Sea Scrolls' Greek fragments and attesting to the widespread use of the Greek Bible among Hellenistic Jews by the mid-2nd century BCE. The text shows close alignment with the Masoretic Hebrew but includes idiomatic Greek renderings, highlighting the translation's adaptive style.[36] Papyrus Fouad 266 (Rahlfs 847, 848, 942), dated to the 1st century BCE, consists of three rolls preserving parts of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Acquired from Egyptian collections and studied in the 1940s, these fragments are notable for rendering the divine name YHWH in paleo-Hebrew characters amid the Greek text, a practice indicating reverence for the Tetragrammaton in early Septuagint copies. This feature, absent in later Christian manuscripts, suggests Jewish scribal traditions persisted into the Roman era, and the papyri's pre-Christian dating underscores the Septuagint's role as a diaspora Jewish scripture. The texts exhibit a proto-Masoretic base with occasional expansions, aiding reconstructions of the Old Greek version.[37] The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri include several key Septuagint witnesses from the 2nd–4th centuries CE. Papyrus Chester Beatty VI (Rahlfs 963), a 2nd-century roll, contains Numbers 5:14–7:41 and Deuteronomy 1:10–15:11, making it one of the earliest substantial Septuagint texts for these books. Its single-column format and clear uncial-like script reflect transitional scribal practices, and comparisons with later codices reveal minor variants that inform textual criticism of the Pentateuch. Similarly, Papyrus Chester Beatty XII (Rahlfs 961), from the early 4th century, preserves Genesis 9–44 across 51 leaves in a codex form, offering a near-complete witness to this book and demonstrating the shift from scrolls to codices in Christian contexts. These papyri, acquired in the 1930s and published by Frederic G. Kenyon, are vital for tracing recensions like those of Origen, as their readings often diverge from the Hexapla.[25] Other notable early fragments include Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 656 (Rahlfs 905), a 2nd-century BCE piece of Leviticus 26–27, which provides brief but confirmatory evidence of the Torah's Greek translation in Ptolemaic Egypt. Papyrus 967 (Rahlfs 967), from the early 3rd century CE, covers Ezekiel, Daniel, and Esther in a single codex, uniquely preserving an early, non-kaige form of Daniel that aligns more closely with the Old Greek than later revisions. These artifacts, cataloged under Rahlfs' system, collectively illuminate the Septuagint's textual diversity and its adaptation across Jewish and early Christian communities before standardization efforts in the 3rd–4th centuries CE.[29]Catalog of Manuscripts
Lettered Codices (A–Z)
The lettered codices (A–Z) represent the primary uncial manuscripts of the Septuagint, designated by single capital letters in the scholarly sigla system established by Paul de Lagarde in the 19th century to facilitate textual comparison and critical editions. These codices, dating from the 4th to 9th centuries CE, are written in majuscule script on parchment and form the backbone of Septuagint textual criticism, preserving early Greek translations of the Hebrew Bible alongside apocryphal books. They vary in completeness, with some being pandects (full Bibles including New Testament portions) and others focused on specific sections like the Prophets or Octateuch. Their transmission reflects Christian scribal traditions, often incorporating revisions such as those by Origen's Hexapla or the Kaige recension, and they provide key witnesses to textual variants diverging from the Masoretic Text.[11] The following table summarizes the major lettered uncial codices, drawing from classical catalogs; not all letters are used for complete Septuagint witnesses, and some (e.g., Z) are fragmentary. Details include approximate date, contents relevant to the Septuagint, and current location.| Siglum | Name | Date (CE) | Key Contents (Septuagint) | Location |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | Codex Alexandrinus | 5th | Nearly complete OT, including Apocrypha (e.g., additions to Daniel, 1-4 Maccabees); poetic books (Psalms, Wisdom lit.) after historical books | British Library, London |
| B | Codex Vaticanus | 4th | Nearly complete OT (lacunae in Gen 1:1–46:28a, 2 Kgdms 24:6–9 [LXX equiv.], Ps 105:27–137:6b; lacks 1-4 Maccabees, Prayer of Manasseh); high fidelity to early Greek text | Vatican Library, Rome |
| C | Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus | 5th | Palimpsest with partial OT (e.g., fragments of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Isaiah, minor prophets) | Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris |
| D | Codex Cottonianus | 5th | Fragments of Genesis and Exodus | British Library, London |
| E | Codex Bodleianus | 9th | Portions of Psalms and Job | Bodleian Library, Oxford |
| F | Codex Ambrosianus | 5th | Fragments of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers | Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan |
| G | Codex Sarravianus | 5th | Fragments of Genesis (palimpsest) | Leiden University, Paris, St. Petersburg |
| H | Codex Petropolitanus | 6th | Job | National Library of Russia, St. Petersburg |
| I | Codex Bodleianus (II) | 9th | Daniel | Bodleian Library, Oxford |
| K | Codex Lipsiensis | 7th | Fragments of Psalms | University Library, Leipzig |
| L | Codex Vindobonensis | 5th | Octateuch (Genesis–Ruth) | Austrian National Library, Vienna |
| M | Codex Coislinianus | 7th | Prophets (partial) | Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris |
| N | Codex Basilianus | 8th | Psalms | Vatican Library, Rome |
| O | Codex Dublinensis | 6th | Joshua | Trinity College, Dublin |
| Q | Codex Marchalianus | 6th | Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, minor prophets); marginal Hexaplaric notes | Vatican Library, Rome |
| R | Codex Veronensis | 6th | Fragments of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus | Biblioteca Capitolare, Verona |
| S (א) | Codex Sinaiticus | 4th | Substantial OT (approx. half survives, with many leaves missing, e.g., parts of Genesis, Psalms); includes Apocrypha like Epistle of Jeremiah | British Library, Leipzig University Library, National Library of Russia, St. Catherine's Monastery |
| T | Codex Turicensis | 7th | Isaiah | Central Library, Zurich |
| U | Codex Londinensis | 7th | Fragments of Genesis | British Library, London |
| V | Codex Venetus | 8th | Genesis | Marciana Library, Venice |
| W | Codex Parisiensis | 9th | Fragments of Exodus, Leviticus | Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris |
| X | Codex Vaticanus (II) | 9th | Jeremiah, Lamentations, Baruch | Vatican Library, Rome |
| Y | Codex Taurinensis | 9th | Fragments of Psalms | National University Library, Turin |
| Z | Fragment Tischendorfiana | Uncertain | Small fragment of Genesis 14 | Location unknown (fragmentary) |